Prime Distractor Research Articles

Predictability reduces event file retrieval

There is growing consensus that stimulus–response bindings (event files) play a central role in human action control. Here, we investigated how the integration and the retrieval of event files are affected by the predictability of stimulus components of event files. We used the distractor–response binding paradigm, in which nominally task-irrelevant distractors are repeated or alternated from a prime to a probe display. The typical outcome of these kinds of tasks is that the effects of distractor repetition and response repetition interact: Performance is worse if the distractor repeats but the response does not, or vice versa. This partial-repetition effect was reduced when the distractor was highly predictable (Experiment 1). Separate manipulations of distractor predictability in the prime and probe trial revealed that this pattern was only replicated if the probe distractors were predictable (Experiment 2b, 3), but not if prime distractors were predictable (Experiment 2a). This suggests that stimulus predictability does not affect the integration of distractor information into event files, but the retrieval of these files when one or more of the integrated features are repeated. We take our findings to support theoretical claims that integration and retrieval of event files might differ concerning their sensitivity to top-down factors.

Attention modulates the contextual similarity effect in negative priming: evidence from task demand and attentional capture

ABSTRACT Negative priming refers to the delayed response to a probe target that was previously a prime distractor. Memory retrieval has been proposed as one critical mechanism for the manifestation of negative priming. This perspective perpetuates that the contextual similarity between prime and probe trials should modulate memory retrieval, and therefore, affect negative priming. However, evidence for the contextual similarity effect in negative priming is mixed. The present study tested the hypothesis that attended contextual cues are more likely to be encoded into a distractor representation, and thus, are more likely to modulate the negative priming effect. By manipulating whether the contextual cues were relevant to the task demand in Section 1, and by manipulating whether cues had an abrupt or simultaneous onset, and by analysing reaction time (RT) distributions of the data in Section 2, our results demonstrated that attended cues produced the contextual similarity effect in negative priming, especially when RTs were long.

Identity-Based Crossmodal Negative Priming: Aftereffects of Ignoring in One Sensory Modality on Responding to Another Sensory Modality.

Negative Priming (NP) refers to the phenomenon that responses towards previously ignored stimuli, as compared to new stimuli, are impaired. That is, NP is reflected in the performance on the probe display of a prime-probe sequence. NP is established in vision, audition and touch. In the current study, we presented participants with auditory, visual, and tactile manifestations of the same temporal patterns in order to measure NP across the senses. On each trial, the sensory modality shifted from the prime to the probe. Each prime and probe display consisted of a target and a distractor stimulus, presented to the same sensory modality. On some trials, the prime distractor repeated as probe target (ignored-repetition trials), on other trials the probe stimuli had not been involved in the prime display (control trials). We observed NP between audition and touch (Experiment 1) and between vision and audition (Experiment 2). These findings indicate that the processes underpinning NP can operate at an amodal, postperceptual level.

The Presynaptic Regulation of Dopamine and Norepinephrine Synthesis Has Dissociable Effects on Different Kinds of Cognitive Conflicts.

Goal-directed behavior requires the ability to resolve subliminally or consciously induced response conflicts, both of which may benefit from catecholamine-induced increases in gain control. We investigated the effects of presynaptic differences in dopamine and norepinephrine synthesis with the help of the tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) rs10770141 and the dopamine-β-hydroxylase (DBH) rs1611115, rs6271, and rs1611122 polymorphisms. Conscious and subliminal response conflicts were induced with flanker and prime distractors in (n = 207) healthy young participants while neurophysiological data (EEG) was recorded. The results demonstrated that the increased presynaptic catecholamine synthesis associated with the TH rs10770141 TT genotype improves cognitive control in case of consciously perceived (flanker) conflicts, but not in case of subliminally processed (prime) conflicts. Only norepinephrine seemed to also modulate subliminal conflict processing, as evidenced by better performance of the DBH rs1611122 CC genotype in case of high subliminal conflict load. Better performance was linked to larger conflict-induced modulations in post-response alpha band power arising from parietal and inferior frontal regions, which likely helps to suppress the processing of distracting information. In summary, presynaptic catecholamine synthesis benefits consciously perceived conflicts by improving the suppression of distracting information following a conflict. Subliminal conflicts were modulated via the same mechanism, but only by norepinephrine.

Contextual modulation of prime response retrieval processes: Evidence from auditory negative priming

Contextual similarity between learning and test phase has been shown to be beneficial for memory retrieval. Negative priming is known to be caused by multiple processes; one of which is episodic retrieval. Therefore, the contextual similarity of prime and probe presentations should influence the size of the negative priming effect. This has been shown for the visual modality. In Experiment 1, an auditory four-alternative forced choice reaction time task was used to test the influence of prime-probe contextual similarity on negative priming and the processes underlying the modulation by context. The negative priming effect was larger when the auditory context was repeated than when it was changed from prime to probe. The modulation by context was exclusively caused by an increase in prime response retrieval errors in ignored repetition trials with context repetition, whereas repeating only the context but not the prime distractor did not lead to an increase in prime response retrieval. This exact pattern of results was replicated in Experiment 2. The findings suggest that contextual information is integrated with prime distractor and response information. Retrieval of the previous episode, including prime distractor, prime response, and context (event file), can be triggered when the former prime distractor is repeated, whereas a context cue alone does not retrieve the event file. This suggests an event file structure that is more complicated than its usually assumed binary structure.

Episodic storage and retrieval in visuo-spatial tasks: evidence of indirect retrieval

ABSTRACTEpisodic storage contends that the relevant target and irrelevant distractor features of a display are processed and then stored together within the boundaries of an episode, and are linked in this way. Accordingly, the selective and “direct” retrieval of either a stored target or distractor should result in the “indirect” and unintended retrieval of the other stimulus. In the present investigation, interest focused upon spatial tasks and the “indirect” retrieval of prime distractor processing. The novel findings obtained supported the existence of the “indirect” retrieval of prime distractor processing in visuo-spatial tasks and, to a lesser extent, of the stored prime target event, consistent with identity tasks (i.e. bi-directional episodically-based retrieval). Clearly, more is retrieved than is presented (Hintzman, D. L. (1984). MINERVA 2: A simulation model of human memory. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 16, 96–101. doi:10.3758/BF03202365), as an episodic storage structure would predict.

Specific and non-specific match effects in negative priming

The negative priming effect occurs when withholding a response to a stimulus impairs generation of subsequent responding to a same or a related stimulus. Our goal was to use the negative priming procedure to obtain insights about the memory representations generated by ignoring vs. attending/responding to a prime stimulus. Across three experiments we observed that ignoring a prime stimulus tends to generate higher identity-independent, non-specific repetition effects, owing to an overlap in the coarse perceptual form of a prime distractor and a probe target. By contrast, attended repetition effects generate predominantly identity-specific sources of facilitation. We use these findings to advocate for using laboratory phenomena to illustrate general principles that can be of practical use to non-specialists. In the case of the negative priming procedure, we propose that the procedure provides a useful means for investigating attention/memory interactions, even if the specific cause (or causes) of negative priming effects remain unresolved.

Finding the positive in all of the negative: Facilitation for color-related emotion words in a negative priming paradigm

A study conducted by Sutton and Altarriba (2008) suggested that color-related emotion words (e.g., sad, envy) produce standard Stroop interference effects. Associations between emotion words and colors are culture specific, and may be the result of common phrases in a language (e.g., “feeling blue” in English), or a result of the manner in which color is used to signify information or meaning in a language (e.g., red often represents threat). In the present paper, the same stimuli were investigated in a negative priming paradigm in which participants were asked to name the ink color of a presented word. In this task, response times are typically slower in ignored repetition trials (i.e., the probe target is related to the prime distractor) than control trials. The results of Experiment 1 indicated that color words and color-related neutral words yielded negative priming; however, color-related emotion words yielded significant facilitation. In Experiment 2, the three word types were intermixed within the same block and the same results were obtained. The current study provides converging evidence that salient distractors cannot be ignored.

Effects of spatial response coding on distractor processing: evidence from auditory spatial negative priming tasks with keypress, joystick, and head movement responses.

Prior studies of spatial negative priming indicate that distractor-assigned keypress responses are inhibited as part of visual, but not auditory, processing. However, recent evidence suggests that static keypress responses are not directly activated by spatially presented sounds and, therefore, might not call for an inhibitory process. In order to investigate the role of response inhibition in auditory processing, we used spatially directed responses that have been shown to result in direct response activation to irrelevant sounds. Participants localized a target sound by performing manual joystick responses (Experiment 1) or head movements (Experiment 2B) while ignoring a concurrent distractor sound. Relations between prime distractor and probe target were systematically manipulated (repeated vs. changed) with respect to identity and location. Experiment 2A investigated the influence of distractor sounds on spatial parameters of head movements toward target locations and showed that distractor-assigned responses are immediately inhibited to prevent false responding in the ongoing trial. Interestingly, performance in Experiments 1 and 2B was not generally impaired when the probe target appeared at the location of the former prime distractor and required a previously withheld and presumably inhibited response. Instead, performance was impaired only when prime distractor and probe target mismatched in terms of location or identity, which fully conforms to the feature-mismatching hypothesis. Together, the results suggest that response inhibition operates in auditory processing when response activation is provided but is presumably too short-lived to affect responding on the subsequent trial.

The error protection impact of inhibitory after-effects in a location-based task and its preservation with practice.

In location-based tasks, responses related to (prime trial) distractor-occupied locations automatically undergo activation, followed by inhibition, which causes these responses to become execution-resistant (ER). Distractor-response ER takes time to override, delaying target reactions that later require this response (e.g., probe, ignored-repetition trials), causing the spatial negative priming (SNP) phenomenon. We learned in this study that distractor-response ER affords this output a degree of error protection. Specifically, when the probe target appeared at a new location, former (prime) distractor responses were used erroneously significantly less often than their control response counterparts, likely due to their ER feature, which discourages their inappropriate selection (i.e., "ER" provides error protection). This error protection also was evident when a previous distractor response was activated by a distractor on the probe (i.e., distractor-repeat trial). Notably, error protection remained effective over extensive practice, as did SNP size (i.e., ER override time) after an initial decline.

On the Robustness of Prime Response Retrieval Processes: Evidence from Auditory Negative Priming without Probe Interference

Visual negative priming has been shown to depend on the presence of probe distractors, a finding that has been traditionally seen to support the episodic retrieval model of negative priming; however, facilitated prime-to-probe contingency learning might also underlie this effect. In four sound identification experiments, the role of probe distractor interference in auditory negative priming was investigated. In each experiment, a group of participants was exposed to probe distractor interference while another group ran the task in the absence of probe distractors. Experiments 1A, 1B, and 1C varied in the extent to which fast versus accurate responding was required. Between Experiments 1 and 2, the spatial cueing of the to-be-attended ear was varied. Whereas participants switched ears from prime to probe in Experiment 1, they kept a stable attentional focus throughout Experiment 2. For trials with probe distractors, a negative priming effect was present in all experiments. For trials without probe distractors, the only ubiquitous after-effect of ignoring a prime distractor was an increase of prime response errors in ignored repetition compared to control trials, indicating that prime response retrieval processes took place. Whether negative priming beyond this error increase was found depended on the stability of the attentional focus. The findings suggest that several mechanisms underlie auditory negative priming with the only robust one being prime response retrieval.

An attentional-adaptation account of spatial negative priming: evidence from event-related potentials.

Negative priming (NP) refers to a slower response to a target stimulus if it has been previously ignored. To examine theoretical accounts of spatial NP, we recorded behavioral measures and event-related potentials (ERPs) in a target localization task. A target and distractor briefly appeared, and the participant pressed a key corresponding to the target's location. The probability of the distractor appearing in each of four locations varied, whereas the target appeared with equal probabilities in all locations. We found that response times (RTs) were fastest when the prime distractor appeared in its most probable (frequent) location and when the prime target appeared in the location that never contained a distractor. Moreover, NP effects varied as a function of location: They were smallest when targets followed distractors in the frequent distractor location-a finding not predicted by episodic-retrieval or suppression accounts of NP. The ERP results showed that the P2, an ERP component associated with attentional orientation, was smaller in prime displays when the distractor appeared in its frequent location. Moreover, no differences were apparent between negative-prime and control trials in the N2, which is associated with suppression processes, nor in the P3, which is associated with episodic retrieval processes. These results indicate that the spatial NP effect is caused by both short- and long-term adaptation in preferences based on the history of inspecting unsuccessful locations. This article is dedicated to the memory of Edward E. Smith, and we indicate how this study was inspired by his research career.

Intact Episodic Retrieval in Older Adults: Evidence From an Auditory Negative Priming Task

Background/Study Context: The negative priming effect has been traditionally interpreted as the inhibitory aftereffect of distractor processing. According to inhibitory deficit theory, older adults should be more impaired by auditory distractors. Recent studies have shown that episodic retrieval processes are involved in the effect. However, so far there is no direct evidence that this is true for older adults. Methods: In an auditory four-alternative identification task, young adults (18–30 years), younger seniors (60–67 years), and older seniors (68–78 years) identified target sounds while ignoring distractor sounds. In ignored repetition trials, the prime distractor was repeated as the probe target, whereas there was no stimulus repetition in control trials. Reaction times and errors were analyzed. Results: Negative priming was present in all age groups. Senior groups showed increased negative priming in reaction times. All age groups revealed a comparable increase of probe errors with the former prime response in ignored repetition compared with control trials. There was no age difference in the frequency of responding with the former prime response in control trials. Conclusion: An increase in prime response errors in ignored repetition trials is consistent with the involvement of episodic retrieval processes in negative priming in younger and older adults. Inconsistent with both an inhibitory account of negative priming and the inhibitory deficit theory of cognitive aging, older adults neither showed evidence of reduced negative priming nor of impaired restraint control.

Retrieval of event files can be conceptually mediated

Distractor-based retrieval of event files was assessed with a sequential priming experiment using a four-choice identification task. Pictures or sounds of four different animals (frog, chicken, lamb, singing bird) had to be categorized by pressing one of four keys. On each trial, a target and a distractor stimulus were presented simultaneously in different modalities. The relevant modality switched randomly between trials. Distractor repetition effects were modulated by the response relation between the prime and probe: Repeating the prime distractor in the probe produced facilitation if the response repeated, but not if a different response had to be given in the prime and probe. Repeating the prime distractor in the probe led to an automatic retrieval of the prime response. Importantly, this distractor-based response retrieval effect also emerged for those sequences in which the modality of the repeated distractor was switched between the prime and probe. This cross-modal priming effect indicates that distractors were integrated into event files on a conceptual level and that response retrieval processes were mediated by conceptual codes of the distractor stimuli.

Target localization among concurrent sound sources: No evidence for the inhibition of previous distractor responses

The visuospatial negative priming effect-that is, the slowed-down responding to a previously ignored location-is partly due to response inhibition associated with the previously ignored location (Buckolz, Goldfarb, & Khan, Perception & Psychophysics 66:837-845 2004). We tested whether response inhibition underlies spatial negative priming in the auditory modality as well. Eighty participants localized a target sound while ignoring a simultaneous distractor sound at another location. Eight possible sound locations were arranged in a semicircle around the participant. Pairs of adjacent locations were associated with the same response. On ignored repetition trials, the probe target sound was played from the same location as the previously ignored prime sound. On response control trials, prime distractor and probe target were played from different locations but were associated with the same response. On control trials, prime distractor and probe target shared neither location nor response. A response inhibition account predicts slowed-down responding when the response associated with the prime distractor has to be executed in the probe. There was no evidence of response inhibition in audition. Instead, the negative priming effect depended on whether the sound at the repeatedly occupied location changed identity between prime and probe. The latter result replicates earlier findings and supports the feature mismatching hypothesis, while the former is compatible with the assumption that response inhibition is irrelevant in auditory spatial attention.

Inhibited prime-trial distractor responses solely produce the visual spatial negative priming effect

Responding to a target's current (probe trial) location is slower when it appears at a former distractor-occupied position (i.e., ignored-repetition [IR] trial), relative to when it arises at a new location (i.e., control trial). This RT(IR) > RT(Control) inequality defines the spatial negative priming (SNP) effect in latency terms. It is uncertain whether the elevated RT(IR) is due to the inhibition of the distractor-occupied location or to the inhibition of this location's assigned manual response (SNP locus issue). The main aim here was to examine the SNP locus issue. Notably, our SNP design used centrally presented visual events and included having two locations share a common response (many:1 location-to-response mapping) and the use of informative (70% validity) or uninformative probe-trial response cues. The many:1 mapping trials allowed for the detection of location and response inhibition presence. Results showed that the latter, but not the former, causes inhibitory aftereffects (e.g., SNP) following uninformative response cues. Consistent with this finding, when the informative response cue was valid and was assigned to the many:1 probe response that had just served as the prime distractor response, inhibitory aftereffects were eliminated, when the probe target appeared at the prime distractor position (IR trial) or at a new location (distractor-response repeat trial). Blocked retrieval of stored distractor-processing representations was proposed as the mechanism for inhibitory aftereffect prevention.

Do not look there

This study used the location negative priming (NP) paradigm and the recording of event-related potentials to examine the mechanism of the impact of emotional stimulus on subsequent spatial attentional processing. The results shown to be relative to the happy and neutral condition, a significant behavioural NP effect, as well as decreased N2, increased N2pc, and P3 amplitudes for NP condition, were found selectively in the fearful prime distractor condition. These findings suggest that the effect of fearful stimulus on location NP may be related to early-inhibition processing. Larger P3 amplitudes may reflect the use of increased cognitive resources when one is necessary for overcoming the tendency to avoid viewing the position where a fearful stimulus has recently been seen.

When seeing doesn't matter: Assessing the after-effects of tactile distractor processing in the blind and the sighted.

Negative priming (NP) refers to the finding that people's responses to probe targets previously presented as prime distractors are usually slower than to unrepeated stimuli. Intriguingly, the effect sizes of tactile NP were much larger than the effect sizes for visual NP. We analyzed whether the large tactile NP effect is just a side effect of the higher difficulty when processing tactile compared to visual stimuli. Thus, we analyzed tactile NP in a sample of blind participants and in a control sample of sighted participants. Although the blind participants handled the tactile stimuli with ease, we found no evidence that the size of the tactile NP effect diminished. In two control experiments with sighted participants, we varied the processing difficulty in the visual and tactile modality and found that both modality and processing difficulty had an effect on the size of NP. Taken together, our data show that the difficulty associated with processing tactile stimuli is only partially the reason for the unusual large tactile NP effect. These results suggest that non-spatial tactile distractors are processed and selected quite differently from visual distractors.

A mid-central N450 component of the ERP distinguishes trial-by-trial effects of target familiarity and context strength

N400-like components in the ERP are commonly understood as being inversely related to the degree at which contextual factors have prepared the brain for the processing of meaningful stimuli. Here we show independent and systematic effects of familiarity and context on mid-central N450 in a simple visual priming task. Participants selected a target digit defined by color while ignoring a distractor digit. Pairs of two subsequent displays (prime, probe) were considered. Probe target familiarity could be high (prime–probe target repetition), low (novel probe target), or very low (probe target = prime distractor). Context strength depended on history of the probe distractor and could be high (prime–probe distractor repetition), low (novel probe distractor), or very low (probe distractor = prime target). The seven priming conditions showed exactly the predicted order of N450 amplitude, with largest N450 for strong context/low target familiarity and smallest N450 for weak context/high target familiarity. Results significantly broaden the view of N400, as a universal marker of stimulus familiarity and context strength also in basic, non-linguistic settings.

Spatial and identity negative priming in audition: Evidence of feature binding in auditory spatial memory

Two experiments are reported with identical auditory stimulation in three-dimensional space but with different instructions. Participants localized a cued sound (Experiment 1) or identified a sound at a cued location (Experiment 2). A distractor sound at another location had to be ignored. The prime distractor and the probe target sound were manipulated with respect to sound identity (repeated vs. changed) and location (repeated vs. changed). The localization task revealed a symmetric pattern of partial repetition costs: Participants were impaired on trials with identity-location mismatches between the prime distractor and probe target-that is, when either the sound was repeated but not the location or vice versa. The identification task revealed an asymmetric pattern of partial repetition costs: Responding was slowed down when the prime distractor sound was repeated as the probe target, but at another location; identity changes at the same location were not impaired. Additionally, there was evidence of retrieval of incompatible prime responses in the identification task. It is concluded that feature binding of auditory prime distractor information takes place regardless of whether the task is to identify or locate a sound. Instructions determine the kind of identity-location mismatch that is detected. Identity information predominates over location information in auditory memory.