Primate Conservation Research Articles

Functional Characterization of the Osteoarthritis Susceptibility Mapping to CHST11-A Bioinformatics and Molecular Study.

The single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) rs835487 is associated with hip osteoarthritis (OA) at the genome-wide significance level and is located within CHST11, which codes for carbohydrate sulfotransferase 11. This enzyme post-translationally modifies proteoglycan prior to its deposition in the cartilage extracellular matrix. Using bioinformatics and experimental analyses, our aims were to characterise the rs835487 association signal and to identify the causal functional variant/s. Database searches revealed that rs835487 resides within a linkage disequilibrium (LD) block of only 2.7 kb and is in LD (r2 ≥ 0.8) with six other SNPs. These are all located within intron 2 of CHST11, in a region that has predicted enhancer activity and which shows a high degree of conservation in primates. Luciferase reporter assays revealed that of the seven SNPs, rs835487 and rs835488, which have a pairwise r2 of 0.962, are the top functional candidates; the haplotype composed of the OA-risk conferring G allele of rs835487 and the corresponding T allele of rs835488 (the G-T haplotype) demonstrated significantly different enhancer activity relative to the haplotype composed of the non-risk A allele of rs835487 and the corresponding C allele of rs835488 (the A-C haplotype) (p < 0.001). Electrophoretic mobility shift assays and supershifts identified several transcription factors that bind more strongly to the risk-conferring G and T alleles of the two SNPs, including SP1, SP3, YY1 and SUB1. CHST11 was found to be upregulated in OA versus non-OA cartilage (p < 0.001) and was expressed dynamically during chondrogenesis. Its expression in adult cartilage did not however correlate with rs835487 genotype. Our data demonstrate that the OA susceptibility is mediated by differential protein binding to the alleles of rs835487 and rs835488, which are located within an enhancer whose target may be CHST11 during chondrogenesis or an alternative gene.

Microbiomes, metagenomics, and primate conservation: New strategies, tools, and applications

Conservation strategies require multifaceted approaches to monitor and protect primate populations, many of which are rapidly declining around the world. We propose that microbial ecology and next-generation microbiome analyses offer valuable perspectives and tools for investigating and monitoring primate health and improving conservation efforts. The microbial communities inhabiting primates and other taxa profoundly affect host health, nutrition, physiology, and immune systems, through relationships that range from commensal and mutualistic to pathogenic. Recent advances in DNA sequencing now make it feasible and economically viable to identify microbiomes among and within hosts. Herein, we highlight several examples in which microbial analyses of primates can aid conservation approaches that are broadly applicable across other taxa. First, we highlight evidence for clear spatial variation (e.g. biogeographic niche specificity, both within the anatomical regions of the host body, as well as in the geographic location of the host) and temporal (e.g. seasonal, ontogenetic) patterns in microbial distribution. We emphasize that microbial communities are sensitive to alterations in the external environment and that microbial diversity correlates with habitat quality, imposing direct health consequences. Incorporating microbial host and biogeographic variation holds great potential for forest corridor assessments and for reintroduction efforts. Finally, microbial pathogens transmitted between humans and wild primate populations carry both direct and indirect conservation implications. Principally, we argue that phylogenetic analyses of infectious pathogens (e.g., Ebola, dengue, Borellia, and Treponema) can aid our understanding of modes of disease transmission and aid conservation disease abatement efforts. The application of microbial analyses to conservation is currently in its infancy but holds enormous potential. To date, no conservation policy or legislation includes microbiome assessments. Integrating new understanding of the patterns of microbial diversity and early signs of impending microbial disruption offer valuable tools for informing conservation strategies and monitoring and promoting primate (including human) health.

Territorial and land-use rights perspectives on human-chimpanzee-elephant coexistence in West Africa (Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Senegal, nineteenth to twenty-first centuries).

The first part of this article compares the distribution of chimpanzee and elephant populations in reaction to human territorial dynamics of West African trade in parts of nineteenth century Guinea, Guinea-Bissau and Senegal. It answers for this specific region the question of whether present-day situations of close chimpanzee-human spatial proximity are stable or only temporary phenomena in long-term processes of environmental change, and shows that conservation policies centred on either of these two "flagship" species carry radically different ecological, political and territorial implications. The second part shifts to local-level perspectives on human-chimpanzee relationships, emphasizing the land rights contentions and misunderstandings created by the implementation of protected areas at Bossou and in the Boké region of Guinea. These case studies help to look at acts of resistance and local interpretations of primate conservation policies as opportunities to reconsider what is being protected, for what purpose, as whose heritage, and to move towards new and more legitimate opportunities for the implementation of conservation policies.

Impact of gun-hunting on monkey species and implications for primate conservation on Bioko Island, Equatorial Guinea

Bushmeat hunting is among the principal threats to larger-bodied vertebrate species, such as primates, in central Africa. However, species vary in their response to differing levels of hunting intensity, making it difficult to not only quantify the effect hunting has on wild populations, but also to plan for effective conservation interventions. In order to investigate the impact of hunting on primates on Bioko Island, Equatorial Guinea, we collected data on primate abundance and hunting intensity across three areas in the Gran Caldera Scientific Reserve (GCSR) via reconnaissance surveys. We assessed how the relative abundance and proportional representation of Bioko's seven diurnal primate species varied among the different sites and in relation to hunting intensity. Overall primate species richness and abundance were highest in areas where gun hunting was minimal, but both measures declined with increasing evidence of gun hunting. Two species of primates, Cercopithecus erythrotis and Cercopithecus nictitans, were relatively tolerant of heavy hunting, but all other species were considered vulnerable. Procolobus pennantii, a species endemic to Bioko, exhibited the highest vulnerability, and its range appears restricted to a very limited area in the southwest of the GCSR. Our analyses indicate that hunting on Bioko is a strong contributor to current patterns of primate abundance and diversity, and suggest that hunting may be driving Bioko's most threatened primates (e.g., P. pennantii) towards extinction. These results highlight the need for rapid intervention on Bioko in order to safeguard the future of its unique primates.

Effect of Antibiotic Treatment on the Gastrointestinal Microbiome of Free-Ranging Western Lowland Gorillas (Gorilla g. gorilla).

The mammalian gastrointestinal (GI) microbiome, which plays indispensable roles in host nutrition and health, is affected by numerous intrinsic and extrinsic factors. Among them, antibiotic (ATB) treatment is reported to have a significant effect on GI microbiome composition in humans and other animals. However, the impact of ATBs on the GI microbiome of free-ranging or even captive great apes remains poorly characterized. Here, we investigated the effect of cephalosporin treatment (delivered by intramuscular dart injection during a serious respiratory outbreak) on the GI microbiome of a wild habituated group of western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) in the Dzanga Sangha Protected Areas, Central African Republic. We examined 36 fecal samples from eight individuals, including samples before and after ATB treatment, and characterized the GI microbiome composition using Illumina-MiSeq sequencing of the bacterial 16S rRNA gene. The GI microbial profiles of samples from the same individuals before and after ATB administration indicate that the ATB treatment impacts GI microbiome stability and the relative abundance of particular bacterial taxa within the colonic ecosystem of wild gorillas. We observed a statistically significant increase in Firmicutes and a decrease in Bacteroidetes levels after ATB treatment. We found disruption of the fibrolytic community linked with a decrease of Ruminoccocus levels as a result of ATB treatment. Nevertheless, the nature of the changes observed after ATB treatment differs among gorillas and thus is dependent on the individual host. This study has important implications for ecology, management, and conservation of wild primates.

Development of Primatology and Primate Conservation in Vietnam: Challenges and Prospects

American AnthropologistVolume 118, Issue 1 p. 130-137 WORLD ANTHROPOLOGY Development of Primatology and Primate Conservation in Vietnam: Challenges and Prospects Thạch Mai Hoàng, Thạch Mai Hoàng Vietnam National UniversitySearch for more papers by this author Thạch Mai Hoàng, Thạch Mai Hoàng Vietnam National UniversitySearch for more papers by this author First published: 30 March 2016 https://doi.org/10.1111/aman.12515Citations: 6Read the full textAboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditWechat Citing Literature Volume118, Issue1March 2016Pages 130-137 RelatedInformation

Quantifying soluble carbohydrates in tropical leaves using a portable mid-infrared sensor: Implications for primate feeding ecology.

Identifying the nutritional composition of food items has significant ramifications for primate feeding ecology, which, in turn, influences investigations of primate sociality, cognition, and conservation. The aim of our study was to analyze water soluble carbohydrate (WSC) concentrations in the leaves of trees common to the Diani Forest of Kenya. Many of these leaves are consumed by black and white colobus monkeys (Colobus angolensis palliatus). We assessed whether the infrared spectral data collected using a portable spectrometer can be used to accurately predict WSC concentrations. WSC content was first quantified using the phenol-sulfuric acid method for young and mature leaves of 24 species and ranged from 1.15% to 9.16% dry weight. Spectral data were recorded with a spectrometer equipped with an attenuated total reflectance accessory (Agilent Cary 630) and analyzed using partial least squares regression. The spectral region from 1600 cm(-1) to 1000 cm(-1) gave unique polysaccharide bands associated with carboxyl, acetyl, and glycosidic linkages of sugar residues. The multivariate analysis gave excellent performance parameters with correlation coefficient (r(2) ) of 0.95 and standard error of cross-validation of 0.6% WSC. We found that IR spectroscopy provides a rapid and accurate technique for analyzing WSC concentrations and offers primatologists many advantages over wet chemistry methods for analyzing nutritional composition. Am. J. Primatol. 78:701-706, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Trade and ethnozoological use of African lorisiforms in the last 20 years

Trade in primates is considered a major impediment to primate conservation globally. The bushmeat trade in West and Central Africa is considered largely unsustainable and represents one of the main threats to biodiversity. Furthermore, the use of primates in traditional practices and medicine includes a third of the African primate species. Little is known about the trade in the African mainland lorisiforms; pottos, angwantibos and galagos. Aiming to fill this knowledge gap we created an online survey, conducted a literature review, and analyzed CITES trade records, focusing on the last two decades. We obtained 188 questionnaire responses from researchers and people working in 31 different countries in sub-Saharan Africa. We found a total of 33 publications reporting on trade in African lorisiforms, and CITES records indicate that almost 2000 lorisiforms were traded internationally from African range countries. Fifty-three percent of respondents provided meaningful details about aspects of the trade in African lorisiforms from 50% of the range countries. Galagos were reported by respondents in larger numbers than pottos and angwantibos, and mainly occurred in the pet trade. Pottos were the most frequently mentioned taxon in the literature, when all trade types were combined. Across all of the sources (online survey, literature and CITES database), trade in pottos and angwantibos was reported from 12 countries, and galagos from 23 countries. Trade was reported to occur mainly within rural settings (64%), potentially indicating that demand is not high enough to fuel long distance trading. However, as seen in the Asian lorisiforms, once quantitative studies were conducted, the threat that trade posed became alarmingly apparent and is now considered a major impediment to their conservation. Our insight into the trade of African lorisiforms should be followed up with concerted studies, with an emphasis on quantifying trade to the species level. Download the complete issue.

The Conservation Impact of the American Society of Primatologists' Conservation Small Grant Program

Given the dire condition of existing biodiversity and the limited availability of funding to protect it, conservation prac- titioners and scholars are increasingly recognizing the need to monitor and evaluate conservation investments. In line with this trend, our objective was to assess the conservation impact of the American Society of Primatologists' (ASP) Conservation Small Grant Program. Since 1989, the ASP has provided funding in support of research- and education-based projects aimed at effecting primate conservation. To date, 185 projects on 74 primate species have been supported in 41 countries. To accomplish our objec- tive, we developed and administered a voluntary survey to former grant recipients from the years of 1997-2012 to assess whether ASP funded projects resulted in further research, dissemination of results, capacity building and other conservation outcomes. We also assessed grant recipients' perceptions regarding factors that impeded conservation outcomes and factors that would have facilitated greater success. Of the 106 people we contacted, 42 responded, giving a 39.6% response rate. Seventy-nine percent of respondents reported at least one conservation outcome. The two most frequently reported outcomes were: (1) research presence generates greater local awareness/interest in target species and/or its habitat, and (2) increased scientific understanding of target species. None of the respondents reported outcomes directly related to the status of the target primate species. Capacity build- ing through the training and employment of students, local people, and protected area staff was reported by 81% of respondents. Almost all of the respondents (93%) disseminated their project results in some fashion (e.g., scholarly journals, newspapers, local radio and TV, conference presentations, and presentations to local schools and communities). The top five factors impeding con - servation outcomes were: (1) limited funding, (2) limited time, (3) illegal resource extraction, (4) changes in local government, and (5) lack of support from local people. The top three suggestions for ensuring more successful outcomes were: (1) develop partnerships with local governments and NGOs, (2) establish a long-term research presence, and (3) secure follow-up funding. Overall, the results highlight the importance of garnering local support for primate conservation projects, sustaining a long-term research presence at field sites, clearly defining terms used in monitoring and evaluation, building evaluation into the design of primate conservation projects, and encouraging and enabling researchers to share both successes and failures.

The Distribution, Habitat Use, and Conservation Status of Three Atlantic Forest Monkeys (Sapajus xanthosternos, Callicebus melanochir, Callithrix sp.) in an Agroforestry/Forest Mosaic in Southern Bahia, Brazil

If we are to develop effective conservation strategies for primates in heavily disturbed biomes, we must understand why they persist or perish in human-dominated landscapes. I investigated the potential of an agroforestry/forest mosaic in the Atlantic forest of Bahia, Brazil to sustain populations of three monkey species —capuchins (Sapajus xanthosternos), titi monkeys (Callicebus melanochir), and marmosets (Callithrix sp.)— sampling the primates in three forest and four agroforestry landscapes across a 1000 km2 landscape during a 17-yr study. I used 754 km of transects, reconnaissance walks, semistructured interviews, and key informant reports to collect information on the monkeys. Capuchins and titi monkeys are mostly restricted to the largest forests, with titi monkeys widely distributed and capuchins nearly extinct. Both species are absent from the Attalea funifera forests, but a few capuchins persist in the Brodiguesia santosii forests. Marmosets live throughout the landscape and are the only species inhabiting the agroforestry lands. The abundance data indicate that the disturbed forests characteristic of the landscape provide adequate habitat for all three species, but chronic hunting suppresses titi and capuchin populations and limits their distributions. Data from the Reserva Ecologica Michelin show that protected monkey populations can reach abundances equal to those at other protected sites, and that capuchins and titi monkeys enter agroforestry lands when protected. Long-term data indicate that deforestation rates are low and that illegal logging and hunting pressure are declining. The creation of reserves and the relatively large amount of forest left make the regional landscape a vital part of the strategy to conserve these species. This study demonstrates that agroforestry/forest landscapes can play an important role in primate conservation when large blocks of contiguous forest with adequate escape space for hunted primates remain, but that the potential conservation value of agroforestry habitats and small forest fragments for hunted species will be realized only if hunting is controlled.

What do we know about the effect of patch size on primate species across life history traits?

Habitat loss and fragmentation are significant threats for primate species worldwide. However, few attempts have been made to look for general patterns in primate responses to habitat loss and fragmentation, or whether these may be associated with species’ traits. We conducted a review of published literature on effects of patch size to quantify the effect of a reduction in this predictor on primates, and to determine whether these effects depend on species’ traits. The effects of patch size on seven response variables (density, parasite prevalence and diversity, presence, genetic diversity, time spent feeding, resting and movement), were extracted from 135 papers and compared across six species traits (diet specialisation, social structure, body size, home range size, group size and dispersal ability). We found that density, parasitic prevalence and diversity and time spent feeding were positively associated with a reduction in patch size, while species’ presence and genetic diversity were negatively associated. Time spent resting and moving did not show clear patterns. We found little evidence that the effect of patch size varies consistently with traits. This study provides important evidence for the consistent effect of patch size on a range of factors that influence the dynamics of primate populations. However, there is a need to move beyond quantifying patch size effects alone and to quantify the effects of changes occurring at broader landscape scales. This would allow more holistic primate conservation strategies to be developed across whole landscapes rather than being focussed on the management of individual patches.

Primate Conservation Genomics and Paleogenomics

Primate Conservation Genomics and Paleogenomics

Agroecosystems and primate conservation: Shade coffee as potential habitat for the conservation of Andean night monkeys in the northern Andes

The global change in land use toward agroecosystems is one of the major drivers of habitat loss and fragmentation. Although simplified agroecosystems such as pastures generally exclude most native biodiversity, other more complex systems such as agroforestry can support certain levels of biodiversity and serve as habitat, connecting corridors or stepping stones for many species. For example, traditional shade coffee plantations can become key refuge areas for biodiversity, especially compared to more intensive agricultural practices.The principal aim of this study was to evaluate the potential role of shade coffee plantations on the conservation of Andean night monkeys (Aotus lemurinus) in the Colombian highlands. Two groups of night monkeys were followed during 16 and 7 months, and data on their ranging patterns, habitat use, activity budget and diet were recorded using focal animal sampling. We also estimated habitat wide fruit availability at natural forests and shade coffee. Overall, both study groups preferred natural forests relative to their spatial cover, spending 70.3% and 94.4% of their time in natural forests, even though shade coffee had a yearly 10-fold total productivity advantage over natural habitats (4045 and 416kg/h/year, respectively). Nonetheless, night monkeys used shade coffee areas throughout the year, specially during the peak periods of fruit production of Prunus integrifolia (43% of time during June–July 2009; 64% of time during March 2010), a tree that dominated the shade coffee areas. The activity budget, home range size and nightly travelled distances of Andean night monkeys in this study fall within the range of values reported in previous studies on night monkeys on disturbed and undisturbed habitats. The results of this study provide support for the use of shade coffee plantations as complementary areas for the conservation of Andean primate populations while providing local farmers with economic alternatives. Although the conservation of montane primate populations in Colombia will largely depend on the protection of the remaining natural habitats, agroecosystems such as shade coffee plantations might provide additive opportunities to increase the carrying capacity of mixed habitats and may become a successful conservation strategy in the pervasively transformed habitats of the northern Andes.

From frugivore to folivore: Altitudinal variations in the diet and feeding ecology of the Bioko Island drill (Mandrillus leucophaeus poensis).

Variation in the quality and availability of food resources can greatly influence the ecology, behavior, and conservation of wild primates. We studied the influence of altitudinal differences in resource availability on diet in wild drill monkeys (Mandrillus leucophaeus poensis) on Bioko Island, Equatorial Guinea. We compared fecal samples (n = 234) collected across three consecutive dry seasons for drills living in lowland (0-300 m asl) forest with nearby (18 km distance) drills living in montane forest (500-1000 m asl) in the Gran Caldera Southern Highlands Scientific Reserve. Lowland forest drills had a frugivorous diet very similar to that reported from studies on nearby mainland drills (M. l. leucophaeus) and mandrills (M. sphinx), with fruits comprising 90% of their dried fecal samples. However drills living in montane forest had a more folivorous diet, with herbaceous pith, leaves and fungi comprising 74% of their dried fecal samples and fruit becoming a minor component (24%). Furthermore, a dietary preference index indicated that the differences in the proportion of fruit and fibrous vegetation in the diets of lowland compared to montane drills was not simply a result of relative availability. Montane drills were actively consuming a higher mass of the available fruits and fibrous vegetation, a condition reflected in the greater mass of their fresh feces. Our results demonstrate the unexpected flexibility and complexity of dietary choices of this endangered species in two adjacent habitat types, a comparison of considerable importance for many other limited-range species faced with habitat loss and climate change.

Can we rely on forest reserves for primate conservation?

Tropical forests contain much of the world's biodiversity, yet their rate of decline is increasing. The strategy most frequently used to protect this biodiversity is to make parks and reserves. While there is a great deal of research on the effectiveness of parks for protecting biodiversity, there is little research on how well extractive reserves conserve biodiversity. Here, we evaluate the effectiveness of four forest reserves in western Uganda at maintaining populations of primates and compare census data from the reserves to data from the neighbouring well-protected Kibale National Park. The relative abundance of the five most common primates in the park was approximately four times that of the forest reserves. In the forest reserves, evidence of new human encroachment was seen every 500 m, while in the park it was seen every 100,000 m. Two recommendations emerge from our research: (i) for forest reserves, such as those studied here, to have conservation value for primates, extraction must be reduced and (ii) until the long-term viability of the populations in forest reserves can be ascertained, they should not be considered in estimates of the sizes of endangered species protected ranges. Resume Les forets tropicales abritent une grande partie de la diversite mondiale et pourtant, le rythme de leur declin s'accelere. La strategie la plus souvent utilisee pour proteger la biodiversite est de creer des parcs et des reserves. S'il existe de nombreuses recherches sur l'efficacite des parcs pour proteger la biodiversite, il y en a peu sur celle des reserves extractives a preserver la biodiversite. Nous avons evalue ici l'efficacite de quatre reserves forestieres de l'ouest de l'Ouganda pour preserver des populations de primates et nous comparons les donnees des recensements des reserves a celles du tres protege Parc National de Kibale voisin. L'abondance relative des cinq primates les plus communs du parc etait a peu pres cinq fois celle observee dans les reserves. Dans les reserves forestieres, on observait de signes de nouveaux envahissements humains tous les 500 m, alors que dans le parc, c'etait tous les 100,000 m. Deux recommandations ressortent de notre recherche: (i) pour des reserves forestieres comme celles qui sont etudiees ici, il faut reduire les extractions pour avoir encore une valeur de conservation pour les primates et (ii) tant que la viabilite a long terme des populations vivant dans les reserves forestieres ne peut pas etre assuree, ces forets ne devraient pas etre comptabilisees dans les estimations de la surface protegee de l'aire de repartition des especes menacees en danger.

Genetic Diversity of the Ring-Tailed Lemur (Lemur catta) in South-Central Madagascar

Madagascar's lemurs, now deemed the most endangered group of mammals, represent the highest primate conservation priority in the world. Due to anthropogenic disturbances, an estimated 10% of Malagasy forest cover remains. The endangered Lemur catta is endemic to the southern regions of Madagascar and now occupies primarily fragmented forest habitats. We examined the influence of habitat fragmentation and isolation on the genetic diversity of L. catta across 3 different forest fragments in south-central Madagascar. Our analysis revealed moderate levels of genetic diversity. Genetic differentiation among the sites ranged from 0.05 to 0.11. These data suggest that the L. catta populations within south-central Madagascar have not yet lost significant genetic variation. However, due to ongoing anthropogenic threats faced by ring-tailed lemurs, continued conservation and research initiatives are imperative for long-term viability of the species.

Ranging and site fidelity in northern pigtailed macaques (Macaca leonina) over different temporal scales.

Space-use patterns are crucial to understanding the ecology, evolution, and conservation of primates, but detailed ranging data are scarce for many species, especially those in Southeast Asia. Researchers studying site fidelity to either home ranges or core areas have focused mainly on territorial species, whereas less information is available for non-territorial species. We analyzed the ranging patterns and site fidelity of one wild troop of northern pigtailed macaques over 16 months at different temporal scales. We used characteristic hull polygons in combination with spatial statistics to estimate home ranges and core areas. The total home range and core areas were 449 ha and 190 ha, respectively. Average daily path length was 2,246 m. The macaques showed a high defendabili--ty index according to the expected ranging of a non-territorial species in which movement does not theoretically permit the defense of a large territory. Overall, the study troop ranged more extensively than conspecific groups and closely related species studied elsewhere. These differences may reflect variable troop size, degree of terrestriality and habitat characteristics, but could also reflect methodological differences. The location, size and shape of home ranges and core areas, and extent of daily path lengths changed on a monthly basis resulting in low site fidelity between months. The macaques also showed clear shifts in the location of daily home ranges with low site fidelity scores between consecutive days. Daily home range and daily path length were related to seasonality, with greater values during the fruit-abundant period. Low site fidelity associated with lack of territoriality is consistent with macaques structuring their movement based on available food sources. However, ranging patterns and site fidelity can also be explained by macaques feeding on the move, a foraging strategy that hinders frequent and long visits to the same location.

Primates decline rapidly in unprotected forests: evidence from a monitoring program with data constraints.

Growing threats to primates in tropical forests make robust and long-term population abundance assessments increasingly important for conservation. Concomitantly, monitoring becomes particularly relevant in countries with primate habitat. Yet monitoring schemes in these countries often suffer from logistic constraints and/or poor rigor in data collection, and a lack of consideration of sources of bias in analysis. To address the need for feasible monitoring schemes and flexible analytical tools for robust trend estimates, we analyzed data collected by local technicians on abundance of three species of arboreal monkey in the Udzungwa Mountains of Tanzania (two Colobus species and one Cercopithecus), an area of international importance for primate endemism and conservation. We counted primate social groups along eight line transects in two forest blocks in the area, one protected and one unprotected, over a span of 11 years. We applied a recently proposed open metapopulation model to estimate abundance trends while controlling for confounding effects of observer, site, and season. Primate populations were stable in the protected forest, while the colobines, including the endemic Udzungwa red colobus, declined severely in the unprotected forest. Targeted hunting pressure at this second site is the most plausible explanation for the trend observed. The unexplained variability in detection probability among transects was greater than the variability due to observers, indicating consistency in data collection among observers. There were no significant differences in both primate abundance and detectability between wet and dry seasons, supporting the choice of sampling during the dry season only based on minimizing practical constraints. Results show that simple monitoring routines implemented by trained local technicians can effectively detect changes in primate populations in tropical countries. The hierarchical Bayesian model formulation adopted provides a flexible tool to determine temporal trends with full account for any imbalance in the data set and for imperfect detection.

Typical and atypical domain combinations in human protein kinases: functions, disease causing mutations and conservation in other primates

A twist in the evolution of human kinases resulting in kinases with hybrid and rogue properties.

Are we making the grade? Practices and reported efficacy measures of primate conservation education programs.

Conservation education is often employed alongside primate conservation efforts with the aim of changing knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors toward non-human primates. Recommended best-use practices include longevity, use of program incentives, collaboration among educators, and adaptive program assessment, among others. This study surveys primate conservation education programs (PCEPs) to assess the frequency of suggested best-use practices, and to investigate impacts on program efficacy. Online surveys were collected from PCEPs in 2013-2014 (N = 43). The majority of programs reported lengths of 5-10 years, with participant involvement ranging widely from a day to several years. Non-economic and economic incentives were distributed by approximately half of all programs, with programs that provided economic incentives reporting positive participant attitude changes more frequently than those that did not (P = 0.03). While >70% of PCEPs consulted with community leaders, local teachers, and research scientists, only 45.9% collaborated with other conservation educators and only 27% collaborated with cultural experts such as cultural anthropologists. Programs that collaborated with other conservation educators were more likely to report reductions in threats to primates, specifically to bushmeat hunting and capture of primates for the pet trade (P = 0.07). Formal program evaluations were employed by 72.1% of all programs, with the majority of programs using surveys to assess changes to participant attitudes and knowledge. Formal evaluations of participant behavior, community attitudes and behaviors, and threats to primate populations were less common. While results indicate that PCEPs follow many suggested best-use practices, program impacts may be enhanced by greater discussion of economic incentivization, increased collaboration between conservation educators, and improved commitment to adaptive evaluation of changes to behaviors in addition to attitudes and knowledge.