Primary Resource Use Research Articles

An exergy-based analysis of the effects of public incentives on the so-called “energy efficiency” of the residential sector, with emphasis on primary resource use and economics of scale

Improving building efficiency is essential for reducing energy consumption, greenhouse gas emissions, and operational costs. In OECD Countries the average share of the Residential and Commercial Sector for space conditioning accounts for 30–37% of the cumulative final energy use. The current situation is somewhat typical of post-industrialized Countries: while the technology for reducing the external thermal losses and for installing more energy-conscious devices and procedures (including real-time monitoring and better design of the enclosures) is readily available, the cost of such measures is often perceived as excessive for the private user. For this reason, some governments have resolved to launch incentivization campaigns to encourage both private and public actors to invest in building efficiency. This strategy has been successful and its large-scale application -even if enacted on a preliminary basis- led to substantial reductions of the energy load per square meter −50 to 100 kWh/(m2yr)- so that subsidies and incentives are likely to assume a major role in shaping the energy conversion market. Technologies that are deemed “more environmental benign” or “of strategic interest” will receive institutional funding to promote their implementation, the funds being allocated both to design techniques, new materials and less energivorous devices. Since the funding is usually provided in the form of tax rebates, this approach is not devoid of problems: in fact, previous campaigns at regional and national level in the primary Energy Conversion and in the Transportation Sector have resulted in monumental failures. While it is clearly in the interest of a community to enact a reduction of their final energy uses, it is also true that such incentivization plans, if not properly and carefully implemented, may constitute an economic and ecological “doping” of the market (detail price increases, material and components shortages, etc.). This paper is a follow-up of a previous study conducted in 2021–22 that proposed a rational and thermodynamic-based approach to the issue: in that paper we presented an innovative cost/benefit procedure that considers the primary exergy savings of an “energy saving” intervention and the installation/operation costs and combines them with the statistically foreseeable savings in the improvement of the building seismic class. The method is intended to serve as a possible model for future policy decisions, and it makes use of the fundamental principles of Exergy Analysis augmented by a conventional cost/benefit analysis and by basic resilience considerations. The case study analyzed in the previous paper is re-examined here in the light of some recent normative developments the Eco-Sisma-Bonus (“Superbonus”), the incentivization plan launched between 2014 and 2020 by the Italian Government.

Global Resource Circularity for Lithium-Ion Batteries up to 2050: Traction and Stationary Use

The use of the lithium-ion battery (LIB) in both traction and stationary applications has become ubiquitous. It is essential that retired LIBs are wisely treated, with a basis in the concept of the circular economy, to mitigate primary resource use. A closed-loop repurposing and recycling treatment is required. Thus, using the concept of total material requirement as an indicator of natural resource use based on mining activity, a dynamic material flow analysis was executed considering the degradation of the battery, its lifespan, and demand patterns under several scenarios. Then, the effect of circularity on the savings in global natural resource use involved across the entire lifecycles of LIBs was evaluated. It was found that the global resource use for LIBs will increase to between 10 and 48 Gt in 2050. Circularity has the potential to contribute to an 8–44% reduction in the global resource use associated with LIBs in 2050. It was also found that a longer lifespan in the years leading up to 2050 would have a greater impact on the reduction of resource use for LIBs, despite the lower effectiveness of circularity, because it would reduce the demand for LIBs.

Spaceship earth's odyssey to a circular economy - a century long perspective

The circular economy is a rapidly emerging concept promoted as transformative approach towards sustainable resource use within Planetary Boundaries. It is gaining traction with policymakers, industry and academia worldwide. It promises to slow, narrow and close socioeconomic material cycles by retaining value as long as possible, thereby minimizing primary resource use, waste and emissions.Herein, we utilize a sociometabolic systems approach to investigate the global economy as embedded into a materially closed “spaceship earth” and to scrutinize the development of circularity during industrialization. We quantify primary material and energy inputs into the economy, as well as all outputs to the environment from 1900-2015. The assessment includes two fundamental cycles: a socioeconomic cycle of secondary materials from end-of-life waste and an ecological cycle in which resulting waste and emissions are assessed against regenerative capacities of biogeochemical systems. In a first approximation, we consider only the carbon-neutral fraction of biomass as renewable. We find that from 1900-2015, socioeconomic and ecological input cycling rates decreased from 43% (41-51%) to 27% (25-30%), while non-circular inputs increased 16-fold and non-circular outputs 10-fold. The contribution of ecological cycling to circularity declined from 91% to 76%.We conclude that realizing the transformative potential of the circular economy necessitates addressing four key challenges by research and policy: tackling the growth of material stocks, defining clear criteria for ecological cycling and eliminating unsustainable biomass production, integrating the decarbonization of the energy system with the circular economy and prioritizing absolute reductions of non-circular flows over maximizing (re)cyclingrates.

Pre-concentration and recovery of silver and indium from crystalline silicon and copper indium selenide photovoltaic panels

The circular use of critical raw materials is regarded as a topic of contemporary interest stimulating continuous research and development to reduce primary resource use and waste production. However, due to the low mass share of such materials in waste streams, the industrial sector mainly focuses on the recovery of bulk components (e.g. base metals). Even in laboratory-scale studies, the fate of critical raw materials through the recycling chain, and the important role of pre-concentration prior to selective recovery have not been sufficiently addressed. To this scope, this study evaluates the mass flow of Ag and In during the treatment of waste polycrystalline silicon and monocrystalline silicon, as well as copper indium selenide photovoltaic panels in order to produce valuable pre-concentrates of these metals. The treatment routes, used in various combinations, are (a) thermal treatment and gravimetric separation, (a) mechanical crushing, sieving and thermal treatment, as well as (c) chemical and thermal treatment of the panels. The pre-concentration yield was investigated assessing the content of Ag or In (mg/kg) in the treated mass share (%) as compared to the initial content and photovoltaic mass used. Then, the selective recovery of Ag or In from the produced treated fractions, which are enriched in Ag or In, was studied through acid leaching and precipitation. Thermal treatment and gravimetric separation resulted in intact target-components and optimal pre-concentration yield of Ag and In (91.42 and 94.25% for crystalline panels, and 96.10% for copper indium selenide panel). A maximum leaching capacity of Ag and In was obtained using HNO3 and H2SO4 solution, respectively. Pure silver chloride (AgCl) was recovered using HCl as precipitating agent and pure indium hydroxide (In2O3) using NH4OH. Overall, the study pointed out that waste photovoltaic panels are new and complex products that can be considered as secondary sources to recover Ag and In, when a suitable combination of treatment processes is applied.

Environmental Assessment of Two Use Cycles of Recycled Aggregate Concrete

The main goal of this study was to compare two use cycles of natural aggregate concrete and recycled aggregate concrete, which is another way to compare the environmental impacts of recycled materials. A series of concrete mixtures with various replacement ratios of primary resources with recycled ones were prepared for this study. The mechanical properties of concrete mixtures were examined and were used for the design of structural elements in the same utilized properties. The two use cycles of a structural element were compared using life cycle assessment (LCA). In the first use cycle, the LCA of the structural element containing only primary raw materials was assessed. In the second use cycle, the LCA of a structural element in which primary materials were partially replaced by recycled ones was assessed. The obtained results confirm the potential use of high-quality recycled aggregate originating from local sources in some applications in building structures. Furthermore, the environmental assessment indicates the benefits of using recycled materials, such as environmental savings, especially the reduction of primary resource use, embodied energy, and embodied emissions, as well as reduction of the pressure on landfill sites.

An Extended Model for Tracking Accumulation Pathways of Materials Using Input–Output Tables: Application to Copper Flows in Japan

Recycling has become increasingly important as a means to mitigate not only waste issues but also problems related to primary resource use, such as a decrease in resource availability. In order to promote and plan future recycling efficiently, detailed information on the material stock in society is important. For a detailed analysis of material stocks, quantitative information on flows of a material, such as its accumulation pathways, final destinations, and its processing forms, are required. This paper develops a model for tracking accumulation pathways of materials using input–output tables (IOTs). The main characteristics of the proposed model are as follows: (1) accumulations in sectors other than the final demand sectors (i.e., endogenous sectors) are explicitly evaluated, (2) accumulations as accompaniments to products, such as containers and packaging, are distinguished from the products, and (3) processing forms of materials are considered. The developed model is applied to analyze copper flows in Japan using the Japanese IOTs for the year 2011. The results show that accumulations of copper in endogenous sectors were not negligibly small (9.24% of the overall flow). Although accumulations of copper as accompaniments were very small, they may be larger for other materials that are largely used as containers or packaging. It was found that the destinations of copper showed different characteristics depending on the processing forms.

Calculation of Characterization Factors of Mineral Resources Considering Future Primary Resource Use Changes: A Comparison between Iron and Copper

The future availability of mineral resources has attracted much attention; therefore, a quantitative evaluation of the potential impacts of resource use on future availability is important. Although the surplus cost model is often recommended among the existing endpoint characterization models of mineral resources, it has a shortcoming as it does not consider the changes in future primary resource use. This paper introduces a new characterization model considering future primary resource use changes, due to future changes in total demand and secondary resource use. Using material flow analysis, this study estimated time-series primary resource use for iron and copper for five shared socioeconomic pathways (SSPs) and a constant total demand scenario. New characterization factors, i.e., demand change-based surplus costs (DCSC), are calculated for each resource. In all of the SSPs, the calculated DCSCs are larger than the conventional surplus costs (SC) for both iron and copper. The DCSC, relative to the SC of copper, is larger than that of iron for all of the SSPs, which suggests that the potential impacts of copper use, relative to iron, will be underestimated, unless future primary resource use changes are considered. In calculating DCSC for other resources, it is important to choose an appropriate approach for forecasting future total demands.

A framework for increasing the availability of life cycle inventory data based on the role of multinational companies

PurposeThe aim of the paper is to assess the role and effectiveness of a proposed novel strategy for Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) data collection in the food sector and associated supply chains. The study represents one of the first of its type and provides answers to some of the key questions regarding the data collection process developed, managed and implemented by a multinational food company across the supply chain.MethodsAn integrated LCI data collection process for confectionery products was developed and implemented by Nestlé, a multinational food company. Some of the key features includes (1) management and implementation by a multinational food company; (2) types of roles to manage, provide and facilitate data exchange; (3) procedures to identify key products, suppliers and customers; (4) LCI questionnaire and cover letter and (5) data quality management based on the pedigree matrix. Overall, the combined features in an integrated framework provide a new way of thinking about the collection of LCI data from the perspective of a multinational food company.Results and discussionThe integrated LCI collection framework spanned across 5 months and resulted in 87 new LCI datasets for confectionery products from raw material, primary resource use, emission and waste release data collected from suppliers across 19 countries. The data collected was found to be of medium to high quality compared with secondary data. However, for retailers and waste service companies, only partially completed questionnaires were returned. Some of the key challenges encountered during the collection and creation of data included lack of experience, identifying key actors, communication and technical language, commercial compromise, confidentiality protection and complexity of multi-tiered supplier systems. A range of recommendations are proposed to reconcile these challenges which include standardisation of environmental data from suppliers, concise and targeted LCI questionnaires and visualising complexity through drawings.ConclusionsThe integrated LCI data collection process and strategy has demonstrated the potential role of a multinational company to quickly engage and act as a strong enabler to unlock latent data for various aspects of the confectionery supply chain. Overall, it is recommended that the research findings serve as the foundations to transition towards a standardised procedure which can practically guide other multinational companies to considerably increase the availability of LCI data.

VISIBILITAS HUBUNGAN KEMITRAAN PADA POLA INTERAKSI SUAMI-ISTRI DALAM PANDANGAN AL-SYAFI’I

The Perspective of al-Syafi’I on Partnership in Marriage In husband and wife relationships, contemporary couples prefer a partnership pattern rather than one of leadership. Although the latter is not necessary better than the former, it is obviously more accommodative of modern ideas of justice, egalitarianism and gender equality. This article aims to explore the connections between household partnership patterns, as fundamental to contemporary Muslim’s, and the traditional Islamic jurisprudence (fikih) most dominant among the diverse adherents of Islam. More specifically, this research describes al-Syafi`í thought. To explore the partnership patterns of married couples, it elaborates on three points: (1) the meaning of qawwamuna, (2) the concept of bride price and household expenses, and (3) interactions between husband and wife. The primary resource use in this research is al-Umm. This article concludes that Syafi’i jurisprudence implicitly accommodates the idea of partnership between marriage partners, as evident in (1) the acknowledgement of a woman’s right to choose her husband; (2) the bride price, which has both legal, formal and moral implications; (3) the co-understanding of the marriage partners in matters of household expenses and the emphasizing of discussion in solving financial problems; and (4) the use of good reason in dealing with household and personal conflicts.

Perceptions of climate change risks in primary resource use industries: a survey of the Canadian mining sector

A survey documenting how climate change is perceived, experienced, and responded to in the Canadian mining sector was administered to industry practitioners at the Prospectors & Developers Association of Canada annual meeting. Nine key findings from the survey are discussed: (1) The Canadian mining sector is sensitive to climate-related conditions. (2) Climate change is perceived to be having a negative impact on mining operations. (3) Companies are taking action to manage the current impacts. (4) Cost and uncertainty are commonly identified barriers to adapting to current climate change. (5) Future climate change is expected to have impacts for the industry. (6) Climate change projections are perceived as threats by the majority of respondents. (7) Despite the perceived threat, companies are not currently taking action to plan for future impacts. (8) Cost and uncertainty are commonly identified barriers to adapting to future climate change impacts. (9) The mining sector is currently making efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The survey is exploratory in nature, establishing a baseline for targeted research to assess in greater detail the vulnerability of mining to climate change.

Cascading of renewable resources hemp and reed

Resource-cascading, the sequential exploitation of the full potential of a resource during its use, is one of the ways to improve efficiency of raw materials use. To design a good cascade knowledge of the typical properties and structures of the plant is useful. In this article it is shown that cascading of the renewable resources hemp and reed can lead to large savings in primary resource use. Resource cascading can therefore make the option to replace non-renewable resources by renewables more realistic. In comparison with using biomass (e.g. reed, hemp, straw) for energy directly, cascading also means that, carbondioxide emission, is postponed. This is interesting in relation to global warming.

Cascading of pine wood

Abstract Resource-cascading, the sequential exploitation of the full potential of a resource during its use, is one of the ways to improve efficiency of raw materials use. In this article it is shown that cascading of the renewable resource pinewood can lead to large savings in primary resource use. For pine wood a cascade of five or six steps can be set up which extends the time that the resource is in use from about 75 to more than 350 years. Cascading also means that, when using wood, the moment that carbon dioxide is emitted, is postponed. This is interesting in relation to global warming. In the Netherlands, a country where labour is relatively expensive, parts of this cascade are realised in practice. Until now, however only a small percentage of the total amount of wood is cascaded. To favour cascading of wood several options may be considered, such as eco-taxation of resources, prohibition to dump waste-wood and a ‘wood-bank’ showing which kind of wood with certain properties is available at a certain moment.

96/02333 Primary resource use and voluntary recycling schemes: Dynamic issues in a global context

96/02333 Primary resource use and voluntary recycling schemes: Dynamic issues in a global context

Primary resource use and voluntary recycling schemes: Dynamic issues in a global context

A simple dynamic model is developed to show that recycling schemes dependent on voluntary action may, in the long run, lead to greater use of primary materials. The agents are a primary-materials producer and a materials user (interpreted as global South and North). Northern producers of the final good are effectively subsidised by voluntary recycling efforts and their accumulation intensity rises to a degree which may offset the unit savings on primary materials. The most effective way to conserve primary sources in the long run is to reduce the Northern savings propensity.