Primary Source Research Research Articles

Reflexiones conceptuales y metodológicas sobre análisis y producción audiovisual en Sociología

The audio-visual has deserved few attention in social research, even in fields of knowledge specially iconized where social representations are constructed fundamentally from the visual speeches transmitted in the mediapolis. The image has been generally used in sociology to illustrate texts and not so much as document to analyze and interpret. It is necessary to integrate the audio-visual documents as primary sources of research, since without them it is impossible to analyze and understand numerous phenomena of the contemporary society. This analytical-comprehensive potential of the audio-visual sources derives from its discursive nature and the mechanisms of production of sense that they incorporate. In this article we think over some aspects of the analysis and the audio-visual production as a conceptual and methodological tool of sociology: the use of visual sources in research; the multidisciplinary implications of the analysis of the visual speech to establish how the meaning is constructed (how a social fact is visualized and how other forms can be constructed of visuality); or the audio-visual image in the construction of the otherness. But the audio-visual, besides being a source and analytical tool in the sociological task, also constitutes an important tool of social intervention in our field. In this respect, the audio-visual production is probably the newer aspect we can incorporate in our sociological work. Visual sociology has almost always approached problems associated with power in which we can now consider to control ourselves constructing other forms of visuality from the actors-subjects who are in situation of underotherness. The audio-visual sociological production can be constructed as a specific alternative space of social intervention that helps transform the reality incorporating the empathic perspective and the vision of the implied actors themselves, normally absent in the speeches established from the power. This construction of a new alternative speech from the perspective of the actor, allows the strengthening and improvement of his autoimage, in a process of identity reconstruction that makes him see himself as a real social actor with capacity of action, intervention and certain exercise of power. These have been the results of our experiences in the research group GIEMIC at Castilla-La Mancha University.

Mapping an American College Town: Integrating Archival Resources and Research in an Introductory GIS Course

Scholars who use primary resources in teaching and research have documented the rewards of integrating archival collections into undergraduate- and graduate-level courses. There is a gap in the literature, however, regarding how these invaluable resources can effectively be integrated into geographic information systems (GIS) courses as a means for increasing students' information and data literacy skills. This study seeks to address this gap by expanding empirical research on how librarians and instructors can collaborate on course projects to better embed information and data literacy techniques. In particular, this article will focus on a final course project designed by a special collections librarian and a GIS librarian, who was the instructor of record, for an undergraduate- and graduate-level introductory GIS course. We emphasize librarian collaboration in the project design process and highlight the skillsets students learned by completing this assignment, including but not limited to: primary source research, database creation, geocoding, historical and spatial data interpretation, and geographic information literacy. Our goal is to promote this type of collaboration to increase students' information literacy abilities and to reap the benefits of hands-on, primary resource driven projects that integrate geospatial technologies.

How Eighteen-Year-Olds Got the Vote

Recent legal challenges to state voter ID laws have raised pressing questions about the correct interpretation of the constitutional amendment that guarantees eighteen-year-olds the right to vote. The Twenty-sixth Amendment, which was ratified in 1971, lowered the minimum voting age from twenty-one to eighteen. This Article offers a new, urgently needed comprehensive political history of the amendment's origins. Drawing on exhaustive primary source research, the piece traces the story of eighteen-year-old voting from World War II to the present and demonstrates that the story of eighteen-year-old voting is far more complicated that is commonly thought. This Article argues that the motives and rationales both for and against eighteen-year-old voting shifted over time and were always deeply embedded in their particular historical moments. As such, the history of the Twenty-sixth Amendment poses a challenge to those who would look to original intent to interpret it.

‘Reinstalling the Old City of Goa as an Eternal Light of Portuguese Spirituality’: The Plan for the Reintegration of Old Goa at the End of the Colonial Period

On the eve of the Indian invasion of the Portuguese Estado da India, or Portuguese India, a commission led by Ismael Gracias, created an idealized plan for the reintegration of Old Goa, the former capital of the Portuguese Eastern Empire. For the Portuguese dictatorial regime, the ambient of crisis caused by threats of an imminent Indian invasion generated a need to justify the Portuguese permanence in India. This would be accomplished by showing the world the secular history of the Portuguese presence in India, visible symbolically in the great architectural monuments of Old Goa. The Goan monuments of Portuguese influence thus became a powerful and ideological instrument of propaganda, validating the heritage activity on them. This article will focus on the intended plan of the Gracias commission, as well as its repercussions within the technical staff and the political leaders both in Portugal and in the Estado da India. Based on research of primary Portuguese sources, this article contributes to the little-studied and relatively unknown field of the preservation of the architectural heritage in the Portuguese Estado da India, and briefly compares this case with similar ones from the colonial period.

Inflantczycy i Kurlandczycy na Żmudzi w XVI–XVIII wieku

The main issue of this paper is Livonian nobles’ immigration to Lithuania. This topic is very difficult to investigate, because of significant deficiency in sources presenting a registration of estates and real estate transactions from Livonia and Courland. There are no registers of owners, tenants, or pledgees of estates from Grand Duchy of Lithuania from 16th to 18th century and therefore primary sources for research presented in the paper are military and tax registers from 1567, 1621, 1667, 1690 and 1765. Unfortunately those registers have many disadvantages, which need to be highlighted. The author of the article analysed transformations of nobles’ surnames. Results of this analysis show that in above mentioned period of time several dozens of Livonian and Coulrand noble families settled in Samogitia. Those families were forced to leave Livonia as they remained loyal to the Polish king, although they also wanted to improve their economic status.

Role-Playing in a Vaccination Debate Strengthens Student Scientific Debate Skills for Various Audiences.

Students are surrounded by strongly-held viewpoints on scientific topics and frequently discuss news reports with their classmates. We developed the vaccination debate exercise to leverage this interest and develop core higher-order cognitive skills (HOCS), including, but not limited to, the ability to critique public media or primary research sources and create arguments for defending multiple viewpoints. Students prepared to debate different sides of the topic and then randomly assumed one of the roles: “Physician” (pro-vaccine), “Activist” (anti-vaccination), or “Parent-on-the-fence” (undecided). Students reported an increase in their abilities to discuss scientific topics with diverse audiences and an increased awareness of importance of examining Internet sources for credibility.

The digitization of early English books: A database comparison of Internet Archive and Early English Books Online

The use of digital books is diverse, ranging from casual reading to in-depth primary source research. Digitization of early English printed books in particular, has provided greater access to a previously limited resource for academic faculty and researchers. Internet Archive, a free, internet website and Early English Books Online, a subscription based database are two such resources. This study compares the scope, coverage and visual quality of the two book databases to determine the usability of each for faculty and researchers.

Cataloging Medieval Manuscripts, from Beasts to Bytes

This article investigates the history of cataloging medieval manuscripts in order to determine a paradigm for digital catalogs of the present. Inspired by the work of Suzanne Briet (1894–1989), it argues in favor of a culturally informed “documentation” that considers not only the complexity of medieval manuscripts as information objects, but also anticipates the diverse interests of users who depend on digital images and supporting metadata to access manuscripts as primary sources for research. Presented here is a faceted metadata structure that considers the premodern manuscript as physical, textual, historical, as well as digital information. This approach is built upon various traditions for cataloging medieval manuscripts, from Cassiodorus in the sixth century to the electronic databases and digital catalogs of the present.

Ensuring America’s Health: The Public Creation of the Corporate Health Care System by Christy Ford Chapin

Reviewed by: Ensuring America’s Health: The Public Creation of the Corporate Health Care System by Christy Ford Chapin Daniel M. Fox Christy Ford Chapin. Ensuring America’s Health: The Public Creation of the Corporate Health Care System. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2015. xiv + 358 pp. $110.00 (978-1-107-04488-3). Chapin applies the results of considerable research in primary and secondary sources in order to assert and sustain a polemical thesis about the history of health care policy in the United States. She elaborates this thesis in an introduction, seven chapters, and an epilogue. Over the past century, Chapin argues, an “insurance company model” for financing health services has been promoted by leaders of nonprofit and commercial insurance companies and of the medical profession, often allied with hospital executives as well as with powerful policy makers in the executive and legislative branches of the federal government and many states. The implementation of this model has “evaded the correctional forces intrinsic” to both “free enterprise and government control” (p. 156). She regrets that, as a result of this history, the country has missed opportunities—most recently in enacting the Affordable Care Act of 2010—to achieve a “nationalized, universal system [through] a government-managed [End Page 740] plan . . . using regulations and mandates to enfeeble and eventually drive out private coverage” (p. 245). Readers are likely to make diverse judgments about Chapin’s polemic as well as about whether or not it is appropriate for it to dominate a book that its author and eminent academic publisher put forward as a work of peer-reviewed history. This reviewer prefers to contextualize rather than to judge, however. Chapin’s book revives a reformist bias that, between the 1920s and 1960s, influenced considerable scholarship about health care by historians and scholars of economics, political science, public health, and law. The influence of this bias on scholarly publications has been in sharp decline since the 1960s, as a result of changing assumptions about methodology and the relationship between research and advocacy, as well as changes in the sources of funding for research on health services and policy. Instead of judging Chapin’s polemic, I will describe aspects of her research that contribute to the historical literature, limitations to her knowledge of relevant secondary sources, and errors or omissions of facts that are documented by primary sources. Chapin contributes to historical knowledge about several critical episodes in the politics of policy making for health in the United States. These episodes include the failure of the Eisenhower administration to enact a reinsurance program; the rising and then declining influence of the American Medical Association (AMA) on health policy between the 1910s and the 1960s; the history of commercial health insurance between the 1940s and 1970s; and the history of the influence of Blue Cross and Blue Shield organizations on the structure, processes, outcomes, and financing of health care. Nevertheless, Chapin ignores relevant secondary sources on significant issues. A notable example is the extensive literature on the history of federal policy establishing and extending tax expenditures (sometimes called, oversimply, tax exclusions and exemptions) for health insurance as a benefit of employment. Another is the literature about the history of medical education and its relationship to continuity and change in the organization and content of clinical services. Chapin’s numerous errors and omissions include claiming, anachronistically, that “physicians continued to promote erroneous ideas about illness” (p. 13) before most of these ideas had been falsified by scientific research; asserting that “nonprofit foundations . . . funded” (p. 15) the Flexner report of 1910, which was commissioned by the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching; quoting Ray Lyman Wilbur, an eminent medical school dean (at Stanford), secretary of the Treasury under President Coolidge, and past president of the AMA, as opposing any reform of the organization and financing of care in 1924 (pp. 21–22), when Wilbur became a prominent advocate of prepaid group practice only a few years later; ignoring the refusal, in 1938, of a federal official proposing a national system of universal coverage to negotiate with the AMA about other issues on their list of recommendations (pp. 25–26); and indicting “private interests” for defeating...

All Dressed Up: Modern Irish Historical Pageantry by Joan Fitzpatrick Dean

Joan Fitzpatrick Dean. All Dressed Up: Modern Irish Historical Pageantry. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2014. Pp. xvii + 335 + 8 color plates. $39.95. In 2004, Irish theatre scholar Lionel Pilkington called for an expansion of the focus of Irish theatre studies to include more sustained investigations of forms of performance outside of the theatre itself, including mumming, pageantry, and political demonstrations. Dating from William Butler Yeats, Edward Martyn, George Moore, and Lady Augusta Gregory's founding of the Irish Literary Theatre in 1899 (which would become the Abbey, Ireland's national theatre), the critical cachet of the playwright and the literary power of the legitimate stage have had remarkable staying power in Ireland, and remain in most cases the go-to method for organizing surveys of the Irish theatre. In the ensuing decade since Pilkington's call to action, the field has certainly expanded in a variety of dynamic ways to meet his challenge. Professor Joan Fitzpatrick Dean's All Dressed Up represents a substantial addition to this discourse, focusing as it does on forms of performance occurring outside the traditional theatre. Her work is the summation of years of primary-source research: Dean has mined a vast array of private papers, newspapers, and archival collections to produce a formidable work that shall certainly remain required reading for anyone interested in examining the complex interplay between historical pageantry and the changing cultural realities of postcolonial Ireland in the twentieth century. Pageantry has been critically discussed in Irish cultural debates before, but in a piecemeal fashion, centering (as Dean notes) on events such as the loyalist parades in Northern Ireland celebrating the Protestant victory at the Battle of the Boyne in 1690 and the various, opposing nationalist commemorations of events such as the 1798 rebellion and the 1916 Easter Rising in Dublin. All Dressed Up builds on earlier works, such as Mairin Ni Dhonnchadha and Theo Dorgan's collection Revising the Rising (1991) and Ian MacBride's edited collection, History and Memory in Modern Ireland (2001) to provide a more comprehensive examination of how pageantry specifically functioned in a vast array of contexts. Dean also situates her work within contemporary theatre and performance studies debates about the interplay between performance and the literary, text-centered tradition of the legitimate stage. Taking her bearing from Diana Taylors well-known work The Archive and the Repertoire: Performing Cultural Memory in the Americas (2003), Dean asserts that the various forms of Irish pageantry that covered the century possessed affective, ludic, and cultural powers (2). Developing alongside the more easily archived, literary works of the legitimate stage, she stresses the popular appeal of pageantry as a barometer of cultural memory: if one asks what theatrical experience was both routine and popular with ordinary Irish people in the twentieth century, pageantry surfaces as a likely candidate (2). More people within that time period saw pageants than saw legitimate plays by several orders of magnitude. Equally influenced by the work of Pierre Nora and his conception of lieux de memoire (places of memory), Dean focuses on where and when these pageants transpired and on the cultural work they were doing in their specific milieus. Although it was generally celebrating] rather than interrogating] the past, Dean maintains that historical pageantry consistently reflected a desire to imagine, understand, or recover the Irish past by dramatizing a narrative (3). Pageants occupied and transformed non-traditional spaces: halls, squares, public parks, and sporting arenas attracted people that might not ever attend a play in a traditional theatre. The pageants' enormous popularity and broad appeal demanded a more sustained examination of the cultural work they were doing in Ireland, and Dean certainly delivers such. …

A juridificação de conflitos políticos no direito internacional público contemporâneo: uma leitura política da paz pelo direito de Hans Kelsen a partir do pensamento político de Claude Lefort

A partir da proposição de um debate interdisciplinar entre o pensamento jurídico de Hans KELSEN e o pensamento político de Claude LEFORT, este texto constrói uma interpretação política da proposta kelseniana em torno das discussões do pós-Segunda Guerra Mundial sobre a Paz nas relações internacionais. 
 Inserto no debate jurídico-político do pós-Segunda Guerra Mundial acerca de uma nova estrutura institucional para o Direito Internacional Público, o Projeto da Paz pelo Direito de Hans KELSEN pode ser compreendido politicamente pois (i) utiliza uma técnica jurídica de produção da Política – esvaziamento normativo do Direito, e (ii) se trata de uma opção consciente por um modelo jurídico-político de direitificação de conflitos distinto do modelo estatal – rejeição do Federalismo Mundial. 
 Hans KELSEN percebera a suposta fragilidade do Direito Internacional Público e a revelara como sua virtude: garantir relações internacionais não-armadas, não mediante o uso da força centralizada por uma única autoridade, mas por um experimentalismo contínuo de sua arquitetura institucional para reconstituir arranjos jurídicos sensíveis à importância da manutenção e do estímulo reiterado das liberdades política, jurídica, econômica e cultural de cada povo.

Modifying the United States National Hydrography Dataset to improve data quality for ecological models

The US National Hydrography Dataset (NHD) is the primary spatial hydrography data source for research and conservation of stream ecosystems in the United States due to its national coverage, high resolution, and delivery of high-volume attribute data. However, despite its wide use, numerous topological errors limit the utility of the NHD for the critical needs of ecological and environmental modeling when network connectivity is of interest. In this paper we demonstrate an automated process that integrates a set of GIS tools to identify, track, and correct four major types of topological errors in the entire NHD network (at the scale of 1:100,000) of the conterminous United States, thereby quantifying and summarizing the type, magnitude, and spatial distribution of topological errors in the NHD. Topological errors occurred on approximately 20% of the flowline features in the NHD dataset, with pseudo nodes being the dominant type of error. In a case study of New River Basin of North Carolina, Virginia, and West Virginia USA, after correcting the topology of the NHD network the number of streams in the database designated as first order decreased by 14%, and the average length of stream between confluences (i.e., inter-confluence stream segments) increased by slightly over half of a kilometer (0.53km). The topology-corrected NHD dataset should particularly facilitate large-scale (e.g., national or regional) ecological and environmental applications requiring topologically sound stream networks.

The Making of Arab Americans: From Syrian Nationalism to U.S. Citizenship

The Making of Arab Americans: From Syrian Nationalism to U.S. Citizenship

The Making of Arab Americans: From Syrian Nationalism to U.S. Citizenship

The Making of Arab Americans: From Syrian Nationalism to U.S. Citizenship

Biografía inédita de Francisco de Quintana: recuperación de un novelista olvidado

Este artículo pretende desvelar datos inéditos de Francisco de Quintana, escritor del seiscientos escasamente estudiado por la crítica literaria hasta nuestros días. La investigación, a partir tanto de fuentes primarias como de su obra literaria, ha supuesto el hallazgo de información sustancial sobre este íntimo amigo de Lope de Vega. Además de aportar nuevos testimonios biográficos, esta comunicación interrelaciona acontecimientos fundamentales de su vida con su obra literaria.

The Long Shadow of Lincoln's Gettysburg Address. By JaredPeatman. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 2013. 244 pp.

The Long Shadow of Lincoln's Gettysburg Address. By Jared Peatman. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 2013. 244 pp. The question of how audiences have responded to Abraham Lincoln's Gettysburg Address has been debated almost from the moment Lincoln sat down after uttering the words for which he would ultimately become best known. Indeed, the issue of how the attendees present at the address initially reacted has been contested by scholars of Lincoln, in general, and of the Gettysburg Address, in particular. In his new book, The Long Shadow of Lincoln's Gettysburg Address, Jared Peatman is less concerned with the immediate reaction to the address, though he considers that topic, than with how Lincoln's address has been interpreted and used (and abused) by later generations of Americans and by people throughout the world. In short, Peatman examines the Gettysburg Address as a study in historical memory, and, in doing so, he puts forward an argument--written in clear, jargon-free prose, and rooted in extensive primary source research and in the relevant secondary literature--that is ultimately convincing. Peatman argues that there were (and have always been) essentially two distinct concepts at the heart of the address: what Peatman refers to as equality, as articulated in the words all men are created equal that Lincoln quoted from the Declaration of Independence in his opening sentence; and what he calls as expressed in the famous peroration government of the people, by the people, for the people. For the first hundred years after the address, speakers, writers, and audiences mostly fixated--though for various reasons, differing over time and place--on democracy while largely eschewing equality, racial equality in particular, and its more radical connotations. Peatman maintains that Lincoln intended for these two concepts to be understood together, but later generations, armed with their own agenda, have instead chosen to focus on democracy, the safer of the two concepts. Not until the civil rights movement, particularly during the late 1950s and early 1960s, Peatman argues, did the equality component of the address, and its radical implications, come to be fully appreciated. Martin Luther King Jr., for example, effectively began his I Have a Dream speech in 1963 by paraphrasing Lincoln's own opening with the words Five score years ago. Peatman shows that this process of rediscovery was also driven by the sesquicentennial of Lincoln's birth and the Civil War centennial, as well as by a recognition during the Cold War of the United States' abysmal racial history, which provided the Communist bloc with considerable political ammunition. …

Service, Hugo Germans to Poles: Communism, Nationalism and Ethnic Cleansing after the Second World War (review)

SEER, 93, 4, OCTOBER 2015 782 The contrast between German and Romanian actions is illustrated by the fact that the largest proportion of Jews to survive Axis rule during the Second World War in the Soviet Union was in Transnistria. Georgetown University, Washington, D.C. D. Deletant and UCL SSEES Service, Hugo. Germans to Poles: Communism, Nationalism and Ethnic Cleansing after the Second World War. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge and New York, 2013. ix + 378 pp. Maps. Notes. Bibliography. Index. £65.00: $99.00. The title of Hugo Service’s impressive monograph, Germans to Poles, actually refers to two important events, simultaneous and intertwined but with distinctive dynamics, that unfolded in the immediate aftermath of the Second World War. The first involved the forced emigration of millions of Germanspeaking residents of what had been the eastern regions of Germany, as well as their replacement by millions of in-migrating Polish-speakers. The second involved an attempt to change from German to Polish the ethnic classification of hundreds of thousands of bilingual residents of those regions, facilitating their transition from wartime membership in a German racial community to post-war membership in a homogeneous Polish nation-state. Thanks to a recent surge in scholarship, some in English but most, predictably, in German and Polish, these phenomena are much better known than they were a generation ago. But Service’s book is among the first major studies that offers a combined analysis of mass migration on the one hand and attempted mass cultural assimilation on the other. The primary-source research for Germans to Poles is focused on two case studies. The first is the district/county of Hirschberg/Jelenia Góra in Lower Silesia, located in the mountainous region bordering the current-day Czech Republic and not far from the current German-Polish frontier. This was an area inhabited before the war almost exclusively by German-speakers with no sense of Slavic descent. In this sense, it was representative of most of the lands east of the Oder and Neisse rivers, where the local German population would be deemed essentially unassimilable and thus slated for removal. But as Service carefully explains, the immediate wartime and post-war experiences of different areas varied enormously. In contrast to regions such as East Prussia, which witnessed large-scale flight and de-population before the end of the war, Hirschberg/Jelenia Góra was among the last areas to remain under Nazi rule and so was more a destination than a point of departure for refugees in the winter and early spring of 1945. Polish in-migrants, however, had already REVIEWS 783 begun to arrive by the time hostilities ended. Some were forced emigrants from Poland’s own pre-war eastern territories, which were now absorbed by the Soviet Union. Others came from central Poland, often with the goal of scavenging for mobile property rather than establishing permanent residence. The growth in local population, which soon exceeded the pre-war level, spurred pressure for the expulsion of the remaining German residents. But the need for skilled labour was a countervailing factor in the immediate post-war period, leading to special dispensations to allow — indeed, coerce — thousands of skilled German workers to remain in the country temporarily. The on-going migration of other groups, such as Jewish Holocaust survivors and Ukrainians uprooted from areas near the new Polish-Soviet frontier, further complicated the demographic landscape in the late 1940s. This was anything but the ‘clean sweep’ envisioned by Allied policy makers. Service’s second local case study, of the district of Oppeln/Opole in western Upper Silesia, reveals an even more complicated set of dynamics. As in Hirschberg/Jelenia Góra, in-migration by Polish speaking-speaking settles often preceded German out-migration. But unlike in Lower Silesia, the majority of the existing residents of Oppeln/Opole were officially not considered to be German at all but rather Polish autochtones subjected to superficial and reversible germanization under generations of Prussian/German rule. The subsequent ‘verification’ of these inhabitants ostensibly recognized them full and equal members of the Polish nation. But in practice, both state authorities and in-migrants from elsewhere in Poland often continued to treat...

Are older workers ‘crowding out’ the young?: a study of the Australian transport and logistics labour market

This paper explores a paradox in the Australian labour market namely that ageing workforces and significant skills shortages in certain sectors are juxtaposed with rising youth unemployment. According to one dominant view these two social issues are interrelated with young workers being ‘crowded out’ by their older colleagues who are delaying retirement. In this study, we consider the strength of this argument through an empirical examination of the Australian transport and logistics (T&L) industry using a combination of secondary and primary qualitative research sources. The study found that it is not the supply of older workers, the major barrier for youth access to employment, but rather employers’ recruitment practices and strategies designed to avoid the costs of training younger workers.

Guidance for conducting systematic scoping reviews.

Reviews of primary research are becoming more common as evidence-based practice gains recognition as the benchmark for care, and the number of, and access to, primary research sources has grown. One of the newer review types is the 'scoping review'. In general, scoping reviews are commonly used for 'reconnaissance' - to clarify working definitions and conceptual boundaries of a topic or field. Scoping reviews are therefore particularly useful when a body of literature has not yet been comprehensively reviewed, or exhibits a complex or heterogeneous nature not amenable to a more precise systematic review of the evidence. While scoping reviews may be conducted to determine the value and probable scope of a full systematic review, they may also be undertaken as exercises in and of themselves to summarize and disseminate research findings, to identify research gaps, and to make recommendations for the future research. This article briefly introduces the reader to scoping reviews, how they are different to systematic reviews, and why they might be conducted. The methodology and guidance for the conduct of systematic scoping reviews outlined below was developed by members of the Joanna Briggs Institute and members of five Joanna Briggs Collaborating Centres.

The Invaded: How Latin Americans and Their Allies Fought and Ended U.S. Occupations by Alan McPherson (review)

Reviewed by: The Invaded: How Latin Americans and Their Allies Fought and Ended U.S. Occupations by Alan McPherson Stefano Tijerina (bio) The Invaded: How Latin Americans and Their Allies Fought and Ended U.S. Occupations. By Alan McPherson. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014. Pp. ix, 396. $45.00 cloth) In The Invaded Alan McPherson recreates how the people in Latin America reacted to the United States’ Dollar Diplomacy policy implemented across the region during the 1910s, by focusing on the case studies of Nicaragua, Haiti, and the Dominican Republic. Centering on the historical accounts of the violent, peaceful, cultural, and political resistance movements against policies of occupation that surfaced in these nations, the author makes the general claim that the liberator’s efforts were effective in part because these were independent, self-interested initiatives by pacifist, militant, Caudillo-driven, [End Page 766] and elite-driven groups but also because transnational actors from Europe and the Americas generated enough pressure on the United States government, ultimately forcing it to change its policy. This work represents an important contribution to the limited historiography on U.S. occupations. Moreover, it contributes to a broader understanding of U.S. foreign policy; Caribbean and Central American studies; the development of political cultures in Latin America; the role of American NGOs overseas; the history of anti-Americanism; the history of anti-occupation movements; institutional development; the dynamics of the junction between American domestic and foreign policy; and the early role of media, propaganda, labor unions, leftist and centralist social movements, public figures, and race. McPherson relies on detailed, multi-archival primary source research, combined with secondary sources, in order to reconstruct the dynamic of the relationship between occupiers and resistance movements; however, the sources come short of representing the holistic regional grievance against the United States. McPherson should have included a short account of other past occupations in the region that shaped the nature of the occupied in his own case studies, considering that Cuba had experienced a unique form of American occupation in 1898 and that Colombia had experienced its own encounter with American marines in 1903. His generalizations about resistance across Latin America based on the experiences of Nicaragua, Haiti, and the Dominican Republic lessen the validity of his argument, considering that not every Latin American nation had experienced U.S. occupation and others, such as Cuba and Colombia, had already experienced other forms of occupation before 1912, when his analysis begins. For example, when arguing that “transnational efforts by Dominicans and other Latin Americans” were effective in creating networks of propaganda and lobby, his sources center exclusively on the experience of the Dominican Republic, yet he uses it to amalgamate the whole region into his argument (p. 159). His choice of primary and secondary sources also helps him make the argument that the Dollar Diplomacy policy that dominated the [End Page 767] era of occupation was purely political and, most important of all, the domestic and transnational resistance was responsible for the shift of the United States toward the Good Neighbor policy. International political economists and American and Latin American historians would argue that the agendas behind the policy of occupation were economic as well as political. In the end he does not fulfill his promise of demonstrating in a convincing manner that the United States’ shift away from an occupation policy was the direct result of the domestic and transnational resistance movements. The transition toward nonintervention policies was a reflection of the maturity and sophistication of the U.S. State Department or what McPherson referred to as a move away from “US provincialism” (p. 263). It is clear that there is agency to be shared between the actors of resistance and the occupiers in forcing changes in policy, but ultimately it was the pressure from private interests in the United States that tilted the balance, knowing well that the paternalistic approach was not good for business. This is a lesson suggested by McPherson’s work—occupation was “a folly to be avoided at all cost” (p. 269). Stefano Tijerina STEFANO TIJERINA teaches history and political science at the University of Maine. He is the author of “The Role of Canadian...