Primary Particle Size Research Articles

Implicit modelling of complex particulate structures: The effect of particle packing on agglomerate strength

Understanding the mechanical behaviors of agglomerate structures is significant in the powder industry for various applications. In this paper, we used a novel Implicit Modelling method to create complex agglomerate structures with controlled structural parameters. Our focus is on the effect of particle packing on the mechanical property of agglomerates by designing two sets of agglomerate structures: random and segregated ones based on primary particle sizes. We used 3D printing to manufacture the agglomerate structures into multiple copies. Through static compression and Finite Element Analysis (FEA), the random agglomerates exhibited overall higher mechanical strength than the segregated ones with the same porosity level. The experimental and numerical methods showed a consistent quantitative analysis of different mechanical property indicators of pre-designed agglomerate structures. Meanwhile, the relationship between different structural parameters and their respective mechanical properties were developed. The results help broaden our understanding of the complex influential factors governing agglomerate strength.

An updated review of industrially relevant titanium dioxide and its environmental health effects

Titanium dioxide (TiO2) is a metal oxide that occurs naturally when titanium reacts with airborne oxygen. It has various attractive and beneficial properties, such as thermal stability, photocatalysis potential, and resistance to ultraviolet radiation. As a result, it is widely used in industrial processes and commercial products. The physicochemical properties of TiO2 can vary depending on the material's primary particle size, crystallinity, and formulation. Different properties have been found to cause different toxicological responses. While most studies have focused on the effects of exposure to nano-TiO2, little attention has been given to other relevant TiO2 materials. In this review, we examine the toxicological profile of both titanium dioxide nanoparticles and pigmentary TiO2. This review aims to provide reliable information on titanium dioxide toxicity for public and private stakeholders to use in risk assessments.

Effects of reformed exhaust gas recirculation (REGR) of ethanol-gasoline fuel blends on the combustion and emissions of gasoline direct injection (GDI) engine

Transportation is one of fast-growing sources of greenhouse gas emission worldwide. Road transport accounts as the main cause of HC, CO, NOX, CO2, and PM emissions. Ethanol blended fuel could improve engine performance and reduce both gaseous and PM emissions. Meanwhile, reformed exhaust gas recirculation (REGR) is introduced to achieve simultaneous reduction of NOX and PM from gasoline engines. In this work, the effect of REGR on combustion characteristics, and emissions of the gasoline direct injection (GDI) engine fuelled with ethanol-gasoline fuel blends (E10 and E20) was investigated. The H2 and CO mixture were used as a simulated REGR charge which was fed to the GDI engine’s intake manifold. The H2/CO ratio was determined via modelling of ethanol-gasoline fuel blend reforming based on equilibrium analysis. Moreover, the characteristics of PM emission (e.g. size distribution, primary particle size, morphology) were explored using TEM imaging. The results revealed that REGR could simultaneously improve both the engine thermal efficiency and engine-out emissions. A total number of PM particles and average primary particle size were reduced and compared with baseline (no-EGR) condition. An insight from this investigation can be used for designing control strategies to reduce the negative impact of internal combustion engine usage on human health and environment.

Electrolysis Process-Facilitated Engineering of Primary Particles of Cobalt-Free LiNiO2 for Improved Electrochemical Performance.

The particle morphology of LiNiO2 (LNO), the final product of Co-free high-Ni layered oxide cathode materials, must be engineered to prevent the degradation of electrochemical performance caused by the H2-H3 phase transition. Introducing a small amount of dopant oxides (Nb2O5 as an example) during the electrolysis synthesis of the Ni(OH)2 precursor facilitates the engineering of the primary particles of LNO, which is quick, simple, and inexpensive. In addition to the low concentration of Nb that entered the lattice structure, a combination of advanced characterizations indicates that the obtained LNO cathode material contains a high concentration of Nb in the primary particle boundaries in the form of lithium niobium oxide. This electrolysis method facilitated LNO (EMF-LNO) engineering successfully, reducing primary particle size and increasing particle packing density. Therefore, the EMF-LNO cathode material with engineered morphology exhibited increased mechanical strength and electrical contact, blocked electrolyte penetration during cycling, and reduced the H2-H3 phase transition effects.

Influence of calcium chloride on the fine particulate matter formation during coal pyrolysis

This study investigated the influence of CaCl2 on fine particulate matter (PM0.5) formation during coal pyrolysis. Two acid-washed coals were loaded with different amount of CaCl2 by physical impregnation. Pyrolysis experiments were conducted in a flat-flame burner at 1400 K, 1600 K, and 1800 K. The PM0.5 yield was evaluated through the size-segregated sampling with a low pressure impactor (DLPI+). Then, the transformation properties of CaCl2 was analyzed with X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES). Finally, the soot properties were analyzed with transmission electron microscopy (TEM), Raman spectroscopy and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). The results show that PM0.5 yield is affected by coal type, CaCl2 loading level, and pyrolysis temperature. Loading small amount of CaCl2 can reduce the PM0.5 yield through soot inhibition, while high loading of CaCl2 increases the PM0.5 yield by forming mineral particles, the lowest PM0.5 yield occurs at 1.5 % Ca content. The PM0.5 reduction rate of CaCl2 increases then decreases with temperature from 1400 K to 1800 K. On all tested conditions, the PM0.5 yield of low-rank Zhundong subbituminous coal was lower than Shenhua bituminous coal. The release rate of Ca into PM0.5 is positively related to pyrolysis temperature and CaCl2 loading level. Ca loading decreases the sizes of soot primary particles and agglomerates, and leads to smaller amorphous cores and more disordered graphitic shells in the soot primary particles. CaCl2 loading also causes the dealkylation and deoxygenation of soot. The influence of CaCl2 on soot formation can be summarized as the catalytic effect on soot precursor formation, the enhancement of soot nucleation, and the inhibition of soot coagulation.

Effect of ammonia addition on the morphology and nanostructure evolution of soot particles in ethylene co-flow diffusion flames

Carbon-free ammonia (NH3) fuel blending hydrocarbon fuel is a viable option to overcome the drawbacks of pure NH3 combustion, but will lead to soot formation. In this study, the effects of NH3 addition (0–40 vol%) on soot morphology and nanostructure evolution in ethylene (C2H4) co-flow diffusion flames were investigated by using thermophoretic sampling particle diagnostic-transmission electron microscopy and lattice-fringe algorithm. The results showed that under the same carbon flow rate, NH3 addition has little effect on the flame height, but great effect on the flame structure and soot formation. With the increase of NH3 blending ratio, the soot volume fraction (SVF), the fractal dimension of the soot aggregates and the average primary particle size showed a gradual decrease. Among them, with 40% NH3 addition, the SVF decreased by 76.7% and the peak average particle size decreased by 34.3% at HAB = 30 mm. Moreover, many particles with multi-core core-shell structure appear in the A40 flame. In terms of nanostructure parameters, the mean fringe length of particle fringes shows a gradually increasing trend, while the mean tortuosity and mean inter-fringe spacing show a gradually decreasing trend with the increasing HAB. NH3 addition causes the fringe length to decrease, the tortuosity and inter-fringe spacing to increase. The soot particles formed in the doped NH3 flames have more disordered structure.

Pitch Carbon‐coated Ultrasmall Si Nanoparticle Lithium‐ion Battery Anodes Exhibiting Reduced Reactivity with Carbonate‐based Electrolyte

AbstractSilicon anodes for lithium‐ion batteries (LIBs) have the potential for higher energy density compared to conventionally used graphite‐based LIB anodes. However, silicon anodes exhibit poor cycle and calendar lifetimes due to mechanical instabilities and high chemical and electrochemical reactivity with the carbonate‐based electrolytes that are typically used in LIBs. In this work, we synthesize a pitch carbon‐coated silicon nanoparticle composite active material for LIB anodes that exhibits reduced chemical reactivity with carbonate‐based electrolytes compared to an uncoated silicon anode. Silicon primary particle sizes less than 10 nm diameter minimize micro‐scale mechanical degradation of the anode composite, while conformal coatings of pitch carbon minimize the parasitic reactions between the silicon and the electrolyte. When matched with a high voltage NMC622 (LiNi0.6Mn0.2Co0.2O2) cathode, the pitch carbon‐coated silicon anode retains ≈75 % of its initial capacity at the end of 1000 cycles. Increasing the areal loading of the pitch carbon‐coated silicon anodes to realize energy density improvements over graphite anodes results in severe mechanical degradation on the electrode level, highlighting a remaining challenge to be addressed in future work.

Mixing sub-micron particles in a ProCell type spouted bed

Mixing sub-micron particles of two different materials produce hetero-aggregates, which can exhibit innovative and superior properties over homo-aggregates of a single material. The present study investigates the hetero-aggregate formation from sub-micron particles in ProCell type spouted bed equipment. Sub-micron particles can exist in the form of homo-aggregates, clusters of particles of the same material that are held together by cohesive forces such as van der Waals forces. In the special spouted bed used, the inlet air velocities are significantly higher than in conventional fluidized beds and can be expected to exert an influence that promotes aggregate breakage and rearrangement. Indeed, by use of scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS), it is shown that mixing is achieved at sub-agglomerate level. Region of interest with a size of 2.5 μm (which is more than double the size of the bigger primary particle) is found to be a reasonable scale to investigate the mixing of sub-micron sized particles in compressed wafers and also in single agglomerates (by a new method of quantification).

Characterisation of soot agglomerates from engine oil and exhaust system for modern compression ignition engines

The characteristics of soot in oil samples extracted from lubricating oil and exhaust system of a modern common rail compression ignition engine were studied. The morphological parameters of the soot agglomerates were calculated from micrographs obtained by a High-Resolution Transmission Electron Microscopy (HR-TEM). The morphological analysis indicated that the soot in oil agglomerates have a larger average primary particle size and overall larger agglomerate size (determined by the radius of gyration) compared to the agglomerates sampled in the exhaust system. This can be a consequence of the dehydrogenation of hydrocarbon (HC) chains from the oil around the soot agglomerates. The shape of the agglomerates is quantified by fractal dimension. The soot in oil agglomerates presented a slightly larger fractal dimension than those studied in the exhaust system. Therefore, it seems that soot in oil agglomerates were more compact than those found in the exhaust system. The impact on lubricating oil properties should be further investigated.

Small angle X-ray scattering of particle growth and structure in spray flame synthesis

Customized metal oxide nanoparticles are on increasing demand due to their high specific surface area coupled with their material properties. Spray flame synthesis (SFS) is able to produce such particles in high quantity and purity. However, the turbulent flame including droplets is a complex system. The analysis of the product is challenging due to the broad size distribution of the aggregated primary particles. Thus, this study combines small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) with transmission electron microscopy (TEM) in order to gain valuable information about primary particle sizes and fractal properties. Insights about the particle formation is obtained by comparing the SAXS data of titanium oxide and iron oxide particles produced with a variety of precursors in different concentrations using two burner setups. Remarkably, all presented systems show a size distribution of the primary particle with two size fractions. The differences in the sizes and consequences for the gained information about the fractal dimensions are discussed in detail. This includes the overlap of scattering information and resolution limits. All particle structures include small particles of 5–8 nm pointing to a gas-to-particle pathway. The large particle fraction ranges from 35 to 320 nm depending on precursor composition and concentration. Their formation is likely linked to hydrolysis reactions of the precursor in spray droplets. For the aggregates, the fractal dimension of mass with values 1.6–1.8 point to diffusion-limited cluster aggregation which is typical for flame-made products. The evaluation of in situ studies with synchrotron radiation confirms the gas-to-particle pathway.

Investigating the impact of nanoparticle geothermal silica loading on the mechanical properties and vulcanization characteristics of rubber composites

The present study investigates the effects of nanoparticle geothermal silica (NGS) on the mechanical properties and vulcanization characteristics of rubber compounds with various filler loadings. The rubber compounds were filled with 0, 20, 30, and 40 phr of silica. The properties of NGS were analyzed using transmission electron microscopy, particle size analyzer, and BET surface area analysis to examine its morphology, size distribution, and surface area. The mechanical properties and vulcanization characteristics of the rubber compounds reinforced with NGS were evaluated using a universal testing machine and moving die rheometer. The results showed that NGS possessed the primary particle sizes below 20 nm and a surface area of 168.35 m2/g. The interaction between silica and rubber determined the modulus of the rubber composites and the vulcanization characteristics. The tensile strength of the rubber compounds, meanwhile, showed a significant increase more than threefold as the filler loading increased from 0 phr to 30 phr, followed by a slight decline at 40 phr loading. The addition of 20 phr of silica led to a prolonged scorch time compared to the filler-free compound due to the adsorption of activators and accelerators. However, the scorch time decreased after reaching 30 phr of silica loading, which could be attributed to the higher amount of bound rubber covering a portion of the silica surface, thereby reducing its ability to adsorb the activator. The presence of silica with good thermal conductivity enabled a better heat transfer during the vulcanization process, resulting in shorter curing times for higher loading. Rubber compounds with an NGS loading of 30 phr demonstrated a favorable balance between filler-rubber interactions, vulcanization characteristics, and mechanical properties in the rubber compounds.

Comprehensive characterization of particulate matter emissions produced by a liquid-fueled miniCAST burner

Soot particles generated by a liquid-fueled miniCAST burner, supplied with diesel B7, was characterized for the first time over a total of 34 operating points covering an overall equivalence ratio ( ϕ) range of 0.103-1.645. To characterize the gas and particulate phase emissions, electron microscopy images, mobility-equivalent size distributions and mass concentration of the soot aggregates were recorded, and optical extinction/absorption coefficients of the exhaust were measured. The burner produces soot aggregates with geometric mean diameter size in the range 45-105 nm with primary particle size in the range 18-39 nm. The Ångström absorption exponent ( α) was evaluated in the range 400-1000 nm and was found to increase with ϕ and vary in the range 1.05-2.25. The interposition of a catalytic stripper in the sampling line was found to (i) flatten the shape of the size distribution of aggregates, (ii) oxidize most of the gas phase thus impacting optical extinction coefficients particularly below 400 nm and (iii) decrease α. The soot volume fraction ( fv) was determined by three independent methods: optical absorption, mass deposit and mobility size distribution combined with morphology data. fv evaluated from size mobility data accounting for morphological aspects agreed within 13% with fv measured optically and within 25% with fv evaluated from mass concentration measurements. The precise methodology developed to characterize engine-like soot particles produced by a liquid-fueled miniCAST can now be transposed to study other regular, renewable, and surrogate liquid fuels to investigate their physical and optical properties before considering their large-scale use.

Effect of Hydrogen Addition on Soot Formation and Emission in Acetylene Laminar Diffusion Flame.

Hydrogen (H2) has been regarded as a highly competitive alternative fuel that does not produce CO2 and soot during combustion. There are few studies of cofiring H2 with hydrocarbons. Meanwhile, the effect of hydrogen addition on soot formation and emission is questionable. In this study, the effect of H2 addition with varying ratios (between 0 and 50% by molar fraction while the remainder is nitrogen) on soot formation in acetylene (50% by molar fraction) laminar diffusion flames was experimentally and numerically investigated. Results show that with H2 addition, the flame height increases and the temperature decreases. The total soot emission and the primary particle size both increase with H2 addition. The addition of H2 promotes soot formation. In addition, the soot oxidation is weakened due to the lower flame temperature. Chemical kinetic analysis shows that the concentrations of A1, H, and H2O increase with H2 addition, which is consistent with the experimental results. According to the HACA reaction, the increase of the molar fraction of A1 and H radicals could promote PAH growth and soot formation.

An Advanced Cell for Measuring In Situ Electronic Conductivity Evolutions in All‐Solid‐State Battery Composites

Ion and electron transport is of paramount importance for solid‐state technology and its limitation presently prevents the access to liquid cells performance. Herein, this work tackles this issue by proposing an easily implementable cell design enabling to follow the cathode composite's electronic conductivity evolution, in situ and during cycling. For proof of concept, distinct active material (AM) based composites are studied, namely LiCoO2 (LCO), LiNiO2, LiNi0.9Co0.1O2 (NC 9010), NMC 811, NMC 622, NMC 111 (NMC family: LiNi1‐yMnyCoyO2), and Li4Ti5O12 (LTO) mixed with Li6PS5Cl solid electrolyte (SE). This work shows the feasibility to track AM's phase transitions associated with changes in the material's electronic transport properties. Moreover, this work demonstrates the impact of the Ni content in the various layered oxides, on the interparticle loss of contact at high state‐of‐charge affecting electronic transport. Lastly, by tuning LTO particle size and morphology, this work shows the effect of primary and secondary particle size on the specific metal–insulator transition pertaining to this material. Altogether, this new testing cell opens‐up a broad spectrum of experimental possibilities aiming to access in situ mode key metrics to benefit the optimization of solid‐state batteries research.

PdCu deposited alloys on TiO2 for hydrogen photo-production

The role of a Pd-based co-catalyst supported on a high surface area anatase powder is analyzed for the photo-production of hydrogen from methanol:water mixtures. The co-catalyst chemical composition was modified by replacing palladium atoms with copper. The preparation method renders alloyed particles with a primary particle size in the 5–6 nm interval. A Pd:Cu 3:1 ratio promotes strongly the activity of the noble metal. According to the quantum efficiency parameter, the Pd:Cu 3:1 alloy increases by ca. 2 the activity of the monometallic Pd counterpart. The analysis of the photoactivity points out that alloying does not affect positively charge recombination and handling

In English

Today, the antiviral activity of oxide nanomaterials can be used in the fight against the viral disease COVID-19. It is thought that Ag nanoparticles may bind to the surface glycoprotein of the virus and interfere with the virus’s interaction with epithelial cells, and inhibit virus reproduction by releasing silver ions in the cell. The viruses’ inhibition with RNA (ribonucleic acid) and DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) genomes by oxide nanocomposites action was presented. In this research, the surface structure of doped CeO2 (La2O3) was studied by nitrogen adsorption-desorption based on BET method. The silver atom’s existence in CeO2 - Ag0 can facilitate the transport of more holes to the surface and can enhance the optical, antivirus activity. The primary particle size of pure cerium dioxide is 7 nm, for CeO2 - Ag composite at 2 and 4 wt. % of silver is 6.5 and 6.9 nm; for La2O3 - Ag 27 and 35 nm, respectively. Cell viability was assessed using an MTT (3-(4,5-Dimethylthiazol 2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide) assay after NPs (nanoparticles) exposure, since only viable cells have functional mitochondrial dehydrogenase enzymes that can reduce MTT to formazan. Nanoparticles were non-toxic for BHK-21(Syrian hamster kidney), Hep-2 (Human larynx carcinoma), and MDCK (Canine kidney) cells in concentrations of 10 and 100 μg/ml, while cell viability was within 76÷100 %. La2O3 and CeO2, which contained 4 wt. % of Ag at a concentration of 1000 μg/ml had a lower toxic effect: for BHK-21 cells 68 and 76 % of viable cells, respectively; for Hep-2 - 40 and 36 %, for MDCK - 42 and 48 %; La2O3 and CeO2 with 2 and 5 wt. % of Ag at a concentration of 1000 µg/ml were highly toxic. The level of ВНК-21, Нер-2, and MDCK cells viability was in a range of 7 to 37 %. It has been stated that oxides of cerium and lanthanum have a pronounced virucidal action against the Herpes simplex virus and Influenza A virus by completely inhibiting the development of its cytopathic action. The lanthanum and cerium oxides with 2 and 5 wt. % of silver inhibited the development of the virus’s CPE by more than 5.0 log10 compared to the virus control. The results show that lanthanum and cerium oxides with 2 and 5 wt. % silver have a high virucidal effect against herpes simplex virus type 1. A 1.0÷4.0 log10 reduction in the infectious titer of the Herpes virus synthesized “de novo” in the presence of lanthanum and cerium oxide nanocomposites has been shown.

MnFe2O4Colloidal Nanocrystal Assemblies as Anode Materials for Lithium-Ion Batteries

Submicrometer colloidal nanocrystal assemblies (CNAs) of MnFeO have been synthesized solvothermally and have been sued as the electrode materials for Lithium ion batteries. Large MnFeO CNAs, which were prepared with the assistance of CHCOONH, possessed the size of about 950 nm showed a larger pore size but a smaller specific surface area, compared with that of 160 nm MnFeO CNAs with the help of CHCOONa•3HO. The capacitance of MnFe-NH can reach 1200 mAh g at the first circle at the current density of 0.1 A g. However, the capacitances were decreased drastically under the further measurements. MnFe-Na showed about 50 mAh g lower capacity and worse cycle stability than MnFe-NH. Cyclic voltammetry and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy profile indicated the higher electronic conductivity of MnFe-NH, thanks to the larger size of primary crystalline particle and interspace between them.

Oxidation-promoting strategy boosts highly ordered Co-free Ni-rich layered oxides

Nickel-rich cobalt-free cathodes are considered as an attractive candidate for next-generation lithium-ion batteries in terms of economic efficiency, environmental friendliness, and energy density. However, high-nickel and zero-cobalt contents are prone to induce layered oxide cathode active materials (CAMs) with undesirable anti-site defects (Li+/Ni2+ mixing) and a defective interface (rock-salt phase layer). Herein, a highly ordered structural LiNi0.80Mn0.17Al0.03O2 CAM was successfully synthesized via the active Li2O2 boosted method. The significant reduction in Li+/Ni2+ mixing (5.5%→2.9%) and thickness of the rock-salt phase interface (5 nm→1.2 nm) vigorously verify the feasibility of this strategy. The evolution of the Ni2+/Ni3+ proportion and primary particle size can further illustrate the co-oxidation mechanism of this strategy. In-situ XRD also shows that the degree of H2-H3 phase transition in the modified sample is relieved, which alleviates the volume change. As a result, the optimized sample displays enhanced cyclability (162.60 mAh/g at 1C over 100 cycles) and advanced rate performance (124.29 mAh/g at 5C).

Insight of electro-chemo-mechanical process inside integrated configuration of composite cathode for solid-state batteries

The complicated electro-chemo-mechanical process that occurs inside the composite cathode for solid-state batteries (SSBs), is of first importance to be insighted for the development of SSBs to seek higher energy density. Herein, exampled with layered transition-metal oxide of LiNixCoyMn1-x-yO2 (NCM), an electro-chemo-mechanical model containing electrochemical kinetics, finite-strain constitutive model and cohesive zone model was built to uncover the impact of ionic conductivity and Young's modulus (E) of solid-state electrolyte (SE) on the electro-chemo-mechanical process inside composite cathode and the intergranular failure of single cathode particle. The intergranular failure of NCM particles is powerfully determined by the Young's modulus of SE and the primary particle size, which is postponed by the coarse-primary NCM with soft SE of E=∼2 GPa. Compared with Young's modulus, increasing the ionic conductivity can uniform the distribution of both Li-ion and stress in the whole composite NCM cathode, realizing improved electrochemical performance with larger normalized capacity and lower the interfacial impendence. Hence, high-adequate ionic conductivity of 5 × 10−4 S cm−1 and soft mechanical property of E=∼2 GPa can be proposed as the guideline of SE for great electrochemical performance with prolongated lifespan of composite NCM cathode, paving an avenue to foster the application of SSBs.

Investigating the use of titanium dioxide (TiO2) nanoparticles on the amount of protection against UV irradiation

In this study, three samples of commercial titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO2) in different sizes were used to investigate their effect on the formulation of sunscreen creams. The aim was to evaluate their role in the performance of sunscreens (i.e. SPF, UVAPF, and critical wavelength). Then the particle size of these samples was determined by photon correlation spectroscopy methods. As a result, the size of primary particles was reduced by using milling and homogenization methods at different times. The results showed that the particle size of samples TA, TB, and TC in the ultrasonic homogenizer decreased from 966.4, 2745.8, and 2471.6 nm to 142.6, 254.8, and 262.8 nm, respectively. These particles were used in the pristine formulation. Then the functional characteristics of each formulation were determined by standard methods. TA had the best dispersion in cream compared to other samples due to its smaller size (i.e. 142.6 nm). For each formulation, two important parameters, including pH and TiO2 dosage, were investigated in different states. The results showed that the formulations prepared with TA had the lowest viscosity compared to formulations containing TB and TC. SPSS 17 statistical software analysis of variance showed that the performance of SPF, UVAPF and λc in formulations containing TA had the highest levels. Also, the sample containing TAU with the lowest particle size values had the highest protection against UV rays (SPF). According to the photocatalytic functionality of TiO2, the photodegradation of methylene blue in the presence of each nanoparticle of TiO2 was studied. The results showed that smaller nanoparticles (i.e. TA) had more photocatalytic activity under UV–Vis irradiation during 4 h (TA (22%) > TB (16%) > TC (15%)). The results showed that titanium dioxide can be used as a suitable filter against all types of UVA and UVB rays.