Primary Host Research Articles

West Nile virus surveillance using sentinel birds: results of eleven years of testing in corvids in a region of northern Italy.

The natural transmission cycle of West Nile virus (WNV) involves birds as primary hosts and mosquitoes as vectors, but this virus can spread to mammals, human beings included. Asymptomatic infected donors pose a risk to the safety of blood transfusions and organ transplants, as WNV can be transmitted through these medical procedures. Since 2009, the region of Emilia-Romagna in northern Italy has been implementing an integrated surveillance system in order to detect WNV circulation in the environment at an early stage. Here we report the results of the two components of the surveillance system, the active testing of corvids and humans, and demonstrate that bird surveillance alone improves a surveillance system based solely on human case detection. As WNV risk reduction measures are applied on a provincial basis, we assessed the ability of this surveillance system component to detect virus circulation prior to the notification of the first human case for each province. Overall, 99 epidemic seasons were evaluated as a result of 11 years (2013-2023) of surveillance in the nine provinces of the region. In this period, 22,314 corvids were tested for WNV and 642 (2.9%) were found to be infected. WNV was generally first detected in birds in July, with sample prevalence peaks occurring between August and September. During the same period, 469 autochthonous human cases were notified, about 60% of which were reported in August. WNV was detected 79 times out of the 99 seasons considered. The virus was notified in birds 73 times (92.4%) and 60 times (75.9%) in humans. WNV was first or only notified in birds in 57 seasons (72.1%), while it was first or only notified in humans in 22 seasons (27.8%). Active surveillance in corvids generally allows the detection of WNV before the onset of human cases. Failure of virus detection occurred mainly in seasons where the number of birds tested was low. Our results show that active testing of a minimum of 3.8 corvids per 100 km2 provides a satisfactory timeliness in the virus detection, but for early detection of WNV it is crucial to test birds between mid-June and mid-August.

Retrospective study of laboratory-based surveillance of rabies in wild and domestic animals in the southern United States, 2010-2021.

We performed a retrospective study of all case submissions for the rabies virus (RABV) direct fluorescent antibody test (DFAT) requested of the Tifton Veterinary Diagnostic and Investigational Laboratory (Tifton, GA, USA) between July 2010 and June 2021. Submitted were 792 samples from 23 animal species from 89 counties in Georgia, and 4 neighboring counties in Florida, 1 in South Carolina, and 1 in Alabama. In 13 (1.6%) cases, the DFAT result was inconclusive; 779 (98.4%) cases had a conclusive (positive or negative) test result. Of these 779 cases, 79 (10.1%) tested positive across 10 species. The remaining 700 (89.9%) cases were negative. The main reason for submission for RABV testing was human exposure to a potentially rabid animal in 414 (52.3%) cases. Among the 79 positive cases, 74 (93.7%) involved wildlife; raccoons (51 cases; 68.9%) were the primary host confirmed with RABV infection, followed by skunk and fox (8 cases each; 10.8%), bobcat (5 cases; 6.8%), and bats (2 cases; 2.7%). Only 5 domestic animals (6.3% of the positive cases) tested positive during our study period; one from each of the bovine, canine, caprine, equine, and feline species. Hence, the sylvatic cycle plays the predominant role in circulating RABV infection in our study area.

Aggressive interactions among white-tailed deer (Artiodactyla: Cervidae) at 4-poster devices for host-targeted tick control.

White-tailed deer, Odocoileus virginianus Zimmermann (Artiodactyla: Cervidae), are the primary wildlife host for adult stages of blacklegged ticks (Acari: Ixodidae: Ixodes scapularis Say) and an important host for lone star ticks (Acari: Ixodidae: Amblyomma americanum Linnaeus), both of which are vectors of numerous tick-borne pathogens. The 4-poster passive deer treatment device is a topical, host-targeted method to control free-living tick populations and has been proven to successfully reduce tick abundance in several states. Aggressive behavior of white-tailed deer at concentrated feeding stations is hypothesized to interfere with the effective use of 4-poster devices and deer contact with acaricide applicators. We analyzed images collected by camera traps at 4-poster feeding stations deployed at 3 sites in Maryland and found a negative relationship between some aggressive interactions and contact with applicators. Our results emphasize the need for further investigation into whether deer social dynamics can impact 4-poster efficacy for tick control. This study serves as a reminder that intraspecific interactions are important to consider when using host-targeted acaricide approaches.

Meta-analysis on the global prevalence of Arcobacter in food-producing animals and humans

The genus Arcobacter has been associated with illnesses in both animals and humans, where Arcobacter butzleri, Arcobacter cryaerophilus, and Arcobacter skirrowii have been linked to numerous cases of gastrointestinal diseases in humans. While isolated instances of Arcobacter infection have been reported in certain areas, comprehensive data reflecting the global impact of Arcobacter infection are lacking. This meta-analysis was conducted with the objective of assessing the aggregated prevalence of Arcobacter across diverse sources on a global scale. We conducted a thorough literature search of the Scopus, PubMed, and ScienceDirect databases to identify studies published from 1992 to 2022 on Arcobacter prevalence in humans and food-producing animals. We utilized multilevel random effects meta-analysis models to gauge the average occurrence of Arcobacter and to examine various factors that could influence incidence outcomes. Seventy-five articles were included in the meta-analysis. The pooled prevalence of Arcobacter spp. from different sources was 21.9% (95% CI: 18.0%–26.1%), and the mean prevalence of A. butzleri, A. cryaerophilus, and A. skirrowii was 15.1%, 2.8%, and 0.1%, respectively. Arcobacter spp. had the lowest prevalence in humans (1.8%; 95% CI: 0.7%–3.3%) and the highest in broilers (38.8%; 95% CI: 28.0%–50.1%). Among animal-derived food products, carcasses or carcass parts exhibited the highest Arcobacter spp. prevalence of 28.6% (28.6%; 95% CI: 23.7%–33.7%). This meta-analysis revealed that A. butzleri is the most prevalent Arcobacter species worldwide, with broilers, as well as seafood, being the primary hosts of Arcobacter spp. We recommend developing appropriate prevention strategies and conducting further local in-depth studies to establish the actual epidemiological burden of Arcobacter.

How do host population dynamics impact Lyme disease risk dynamics in theoretical models?

Lyme disease is the most common wildlife-to-human transmitted disease reported in North America. The study of this disease requires an understanding of the ecology of the complex communities of ticks and host species involved in harboring and transmitting this disease. Much of the ecology of this system is well understood, such as the life cycle of ticks, and how hosts are able to support tick populations and serve as disease reservoirs, but there is much to be explored about how the population dynamics of different host species and communities impact disease risk to humans. In this study, we construct a stage-structured, empirically-informed model with host dynamics to investigate how host population dynamics can affect disease risk to humans. The model describes a tick population and a simplified community of three host species, where primary nymph host populations are made to fluctuate on an annual basis, as commonly observed in host populations. We tested the model under different environmental conditions to examine the effect of environment on the interactions of host dynamics and disease risk. Results show that allowing for host dynamics in the model reduces mean nymphal infection prevalence and increases the maximum annual prevalence of nymphal infection and the density of infected nymphs. Effects of host dynamics on disease measures of nymphal infection prevalence were nonlinear and patterns in the effect of dynamics on amplitude in nymphal infection prevalence varied across environmental conditions. These results highlight the importance of further study of the effect of community dynamics on disease risk. This will involve the construction of further theoretical models and collection of robust field data to inform these models. With a more complete understanding of disease dynamics we can begin to better determine how to predict and manage disease risk using these models.

Natural resistance to meglumine antimoniate is associated with treatment failure in cutaneous leishmaniasis caused by Leishmania (Viannia) panamensis.

The multifactorial basis of therapeutic response can obscure the relation between antimicrobial drug susceptibility and clinical outcome. To discern the relationship between parasite susceptibility to meglumine antimoniate (SbV) and therapeutic outcome of cutaneous leishmaniasis, risk factors for treatment failure were considered in evaluating this relationship in ninety-one cutaneous leishmaniasis patients and corresponding clinical strains of Leishmania (Viannia) panamensis. Parasite susceptibility to 32 μg SbV/mL (plasma Cmax) was evaluated in primary human macrophages, PBMCs, and U937 macrophages. Early parasitological response to treatment was determined in lesions of a subgroup of patients, and pathogenicity of Sb-resistant and sensitive clinical strains was compared in BALB/c mice. Parasite survival in cell models and patient lesions was determined by qRT-PCR of Leishmania 7SLRNA transcript. Parasite loads in BALB/c mice were quantified by limiting dilution analysis. The disparate Sb-susceptibility of parasite subpopulations distinguished by isoenzyme profiles (zymodemes) was manifest in all cell models. Notably, Sb-resistance defined by parasite survival, was most effectively discerned in U937 macrophages compared with primary human host cells, significantly higher among strains from patients who failed treatment than cured and, significantly associated with treatment failure. Each unit increase in transformed survival rate corresponded to a 10.6-fold rise in the odds of treatment failure. Furthermore, treatment failure was significantly associated with naturally Sb-resistant zymodeme 2.3 strains, which also produced larger lesions and parasite burdens in BALB/c mice than Sb-sensitive zymodeme 2.2 strains. The confounding effect of host risk factors for treatment failure in discerning this association was evidenced in comparing strains from patients with and without the defined risk factors for treatment failure. These results establish the association of natural resistance to meglumine antimoniate with treatment failure, the importance of host risk factors in evaluating drug susceptibility and treatment outcome, and the clinical and epidemiological relevance of natural Sb-resistance in L. (V.) panamensis subpopulations.

First record of the genus Haritalodes Warren, 1890 and H. derogata (Fabricius, 1775) (Lepidoptera: Crambidae: Spilomelinae) from Türkiye and its morphological and molecular identification

The genus Haritalodes Warren, 1890 is represented by 12 species worldwide except in the Nearctic and Neotropical regions. Haritalodes derogata (Fabricius, 1775), commonly known as the cotton leaf roller moth, is the most widely distributed species of the genus and is common in the West Palaearctic Region. This species is one of the most serious pests of Malvaceae. The larvae primarily feed on the leaves, and severe population levels may lead to significant yield loss in the primary host, cotton. In a survey in 2023, the shrubs of the Hibiscus sp. were found to be infested by a group of larvae with a very dense population feeding on the leaves in Trabzon Province, Türkiye. The larvae were reared for pupation and adult emergence. Morphological identification according to male and female genitalia as well as sequencing of the mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase region I (COI) from larvae and adults revealed that the species is H. derogata. This is the first report of the genus Haritalodes and Haritalodes derogata in Türkiye.

Preface

The 2nd International Conference and the 11th Congress of the Entomological Society of Indonesia 2023 (ICCESI 2023) Padang, West Sumatra, Indonesia, 29 September – 1 October 2023 “Mitigation of Climate Change through Beneficial Insect Utilization to Support Sustainable Ecosystem and Food Security” The Indonesian Entomological Society (ESI) has successfully held the 2nd International Conference and 11th Congress of the Indonesian Entomological Society 2023 (ICCESI 2023) on 29 September - 1 October 2023, entirely offline at the Santika Premiere Hotel Padang, West Sumatra, Indonesia. The event involved the committee from the center, all branches, and members of ESI from Universitas Andalas, who were assigned as the primary hosts. ICCESI 2023 has the theme “Mitigating climate change through the use of beneficial insects to support sustainable ecosystems and food security.” The main objective was to provide a venue for ideal platform of researchers, academics, and practitioners to gather, share information, and discuss their results and scientific experiences by making entomology a special reference to adaptation to climate change.Climate change is closely related to weather changes, including deviations in temperature patterns. The world is warmer than ever. The last two decades have seen the warmest temperatures since the 1800s and the warmest ten years ever. The dry season is getting longer, and water is getting scarcer. Lack of water and rising temperatures make growing more difficult for plants. The land gradually becomes less productive. Climate change damages environmental health, hampers production, and destroys food crops. Global food yields are expected to decline by 30% by 2050 if we cannot adapt to the impacts of climate change. The Indonesian Entomological Society (ESI) wants to be an integral part of overcoming this problem in Indonesia and the worldOverall, insects have a very important role in the continuity of human life, not only as frightening pests but also as a beneficial role for humans, including as biological pest control agents, pollinators, sources of protein, medicines, clothing materials, and decorations, and inspiration. With their specifications and adaptability, insects can provide enormous opportunities to survive in various extreme conditions, including climate change. This opportunity must be supported by comprehensive studies and research for human life and welfare while minimizing negative impacts on living creatures and the environmentList of Documentations, The Committee, Schedule, Symposium Schedule, Paralel Schedule are available in this Pdf.

Feeding assimilation of fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda J.E Smith) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) larvae on several host types

Spodoptera frugiperda (Noctuidae: Lepidoptera) is a pest that is easy to adapt and quickly develops. S. frugiperda can switch to crops other than maize as the primary host. Food assimilation must be tested to determine which plants S . frugiperda larvae prefer. This research was conducted to determine the feeding assimilation of S. frugiperda larvae and determine plants that can be alternative hostsinstead of maize . This study was arranged using a completely randomized design (CRD) with three treatments and five replications to obtain 15 experimental units. Larvae feed consists of rice, maize, and Napier grass. Feed is given during their 3rd instar stage until it becomes a prepupa. The suitability of plants as a food source for insects can be determined by a food assimilation test calculated using the Gravimetric method. The findings from the observations of food assimilation of S. frugiperda larvae in larvae-fed maize had higher consumption rate, growth rate, and digestibility than larvae-fed Napier grass. The conversion efficiency of digested food in grass-consuming larvae is 24.173%, higher than maize, 10.227%, and rice 0.00%. In compliance, the efficiency of food utilization was higher for larvae-fed Napier grass compared to those fed maize and rice.

Three sympatric host nestlings eavesdrop on cuckoo nestling distress calls.

In predator-prey interactions, the prey faces extreme challenges from predation, which drives the evolution of defense or anti-predator mechanisms. Compared with adult birds, nestlings are more vulnerable but not helpless. However, data on whether nestlings eavesdrop on the danger signals transmitted by other prey nestlings and the mechanisms of eavesdropping remain limited. In brood parasitism, common cuckoo (Cuculus canorus) nestlings, raised by host adults who are not closely related, offer an instructive system for studying the transmission and recognition of danger signals among nestlings of different species that share special relationships. We played back the distress calls of common cuckoo nestlings to nestlings of three sympatric host species (the oriental reed warbler Acrocephalus orientalis, which is a primary host of the common cuckoo, the reed parrotbill Paradoxornis heudei, an occasional host, and the vinous-throated parrotbill Sinosuthora webbiana, which is not parasitized in the study area) to investigate whether the host nestlings reduced their begging behavior. We also quantified the degree of inhibition toward begging behavior for these nestlings. The results revealed that, in response to the distress calls, the three sympatric host species markedly suppressed their begging behavior. This response can likely be attributed to the innate response of host nestlings caused by the general characteristics of distress calls, rather than the acoustic similarity and phylogenetic relationship between host nestlings and cuckoo nestlings. Furthermore, we observed that upon hearing the distress calls of cuckoo nestlings, the oriental reed warbler nestlings exhibited the greatest reduction in the total number of calls compared to the other two host species, potentially owing to stronger predation and parasitic pressures. This study suggests that host nestlings can detect danger signals emitted by parasitic nestlings; however, further investigation is needed to determine whether they can respond to distress calls from unfamiliar nestlings in different regions.

The Origin and Evolution of Rare Earth Element Mineralization in the Muluozhai Deposit (Sichuan, China): Insights from Mineralogical, Trace Element, and Sr-Nd-Pb-C-O-Ca Isotope Data

Abstract Carbonatite complexes are globally significant sources of rare earth elements (REEs); however, mechanisms governing REE deposition in various tectono-lithologic settings, encompassing host rocks, wall rocks, ore-controlling structures, and metasomatism, remain inadequately understood. The Zhengjialiangzi mining camp, situated within the extensive Muluozhai deposit (containing 0.45 million metric tons [Mt] at 4.0 wt % REE2O3) in the northern segment of the Mianning-Dechang belt, Sichuan (southwestern China), is characterized by a complex vein system that evolved within metamorphosed supracrustal rocks of the Yangxin and Mount Emei Formations. The mineralization is coeval with Oligocene intrusions of carbonatite and nordmarkite at ~27 Ma. The major gangue minerals include fluorite, barite (transitional to celestine), and calcite, with bastnäsite serving as the primary host for REEs in all analyzed orebodies. Several other accessory to minor minerals were identified in the ore veins, including some that had not previously been known to occur in the Muluozhai deposits (e.g., thorite and pyrochlore). The stable isotopic (C-O-Ca) and trace element compositions of calcite, along with whole-rock data, suggest that carbonate material was derived from the mantle and subsequently reequilibrated with the Yangxin marbles. The radiogenic isotope (Sr-Nd-Pb) compositions of vein material remained unaffected by wall-rock contamination and suggest a mantle source influenced by crustal recycling, consistent with other REE deposits hosted by carbonatite and nordmarkite in the region. The combined petrographic and geochemical evidence suggests derivation of Muluozhai mineralization from a carbonatitic source and interaction of carbonatite-derived fluids with wall rocks, xenoliths, and early-crystallizing mineral phases, particularly barite.

Canine leishmaniasis in the Americas: etiology, distribution, and clinical and zoonotic importance.

Canine leishmaniasis is a widespread disease on the American continent, with cases reported from Uruguay to the USA and Canada. While numerous Leishmania spp. have been reported in dogs in this region, Leishmania infantum and Leishmania braziliensis are the most common etiological agents of canine leishmaniasis from a continental perspective. Nonetheless, other species may predominate locally in some countries. The participation of dogs in the transmission cycle of various Leishmania spp. has long been speculated, but evidence indicates that their role as reservoirs of species other than L. infantum is negligible. Various native wildlife (e.g., small rodents, marsupials, sloths, and monkeys) are, in fact, the primary hosts of Leishmania spp. in the Americas. In this review, an updated list of Leishmania spp. infecting dogs in the Americas is presented, along with their distribution and clinical and zoonotic importance.

Reservoir displacement by an invasive rodent reduces Lassa virus zoonotic spillover risk

The black rat (Rattus rattus) is a globally invasive species that has been widely introduced across Africa. Within its invasive range in West Africa, R. rattus may compete with the native rodent Mastomys natalensis, the primary reservoir host of Lassa virus, a zoonotic pathogen that kills thousands annually. Here, we use rodent trapping data from Sierra Leone and Guinea to show that R. rattus presence reduces M. natalensis density within the human dwellings where Lassa virus exposure is most likely to occur. Further, we integrate infection data from M. natalensis to demonstrate that Lassa virus zoonotic spillover risk is lower at sites with R. rattus. While non-native species can have numerous negative effects on ecosystems, our results suggest that R. rattus invasion has the indirect benefit of decreasing zoonotic spillover of an endemic pathogen, with important implications for invasive species control across West Africa.

Effects of tea polyphenols pretreatment of kanamycin mycelial residue on subsequent aerobic composting: Improvements in antibiotic resistance control

Our previous research has demonstrated the efficient removal of residual kanamycin in kanamycin mycelial residue (KMR) through abiotic humification with tea polyphenols (TP). This study aims to investigate the impact of TP pretreatment on the subsequent composting of KMR, focusing on composting quality, kanamycin residue, and antibiotic resistance. The physicochemical results indicated that TP pretreatment not only showed no adverse impact on the composting, but exhibited the potential to enhance humification according to the results of the three-dimensional fluorescence results. Moreover, a 22.6 % lower kanamycin content (0.24 mg/kg) was observed in the final fertilizer product from TP pretreatment, with approximately 6.9 times the total relative abundance of target antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) reduced. The Proteobacteria, Firmicutes and Actinobacteria were the primary potential hosts for ARGs and mobile genetic elements (MGEs). Overall, TP pretreatment appears to be a promising approach for achieving a safer resource utilization of KMR through composting.

A molecular epidemiological investigation of contagious caprine pleuropneumonia in goats and captive Arabian sand gazelle (Gazella marica) in Oman

BackgroundContagious caprine pleuropneumonia (CCPP) is a fatal WOAH-listed, respiratory disease in small ruminants with goats as primary hosts that is caused by Mycoplasma capricolum subspecies capripneumoniae (Mccp). Twelve CCPP outbreaks were investigated in 11 goat herds and a herd of captive Arabian sand gazelle (Gazella marica) in four Omani governorates by clinical pathological and molecular analysis to compare disease manifestation and Mccp genetic profiles in goats and wild ungulates.ResultsThe CCPP forms in diseased and necropsied goats varied from peracute (5.8%), acute (79.2%) and chronic (4.5%) while all of the five necropsied gazelles showed the acute form based on the clinical picture, gross and histopathological evaluation. Colonies of Mccp were recovered from cultured pleural fluid, but not from lung tissue samples of one gazelle and nine goats and all the isolates were confirmed by Mccp-specific real time PCR. Whole genome-single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) analysis was performed on the ten isolates sequenced in this study and twenty sequences retrieved from the Genbank database. The Mccp strains from Oman clustered all in phylogroup A together with strains from East Africa and one strain from Qatar. A low variability of around 125 SNPs was seen in the investigated Omani isolates from both goats and gazelles indicating mutual transmission of the pathogen between wildlife and goats.ConclusionRecent outbreaks of CCPP in Northern Oman are caused by Mccp strains of the East African Phylogroup A which can infect goats and captive gazelles likewise. Therefore, wild and captive ungulates should be considered as reservoirs and included in CCPP surveillance measures.

Long-term hematopoietic stem cells trigger quiescence in Leishmania parasites.

Addressing the challenges of quiescence and post-treatment relapse is of utmost importance in the microbiology field. This study shows that Leishmania infantum and L. donovani parasites rapidly enter into quiescence after an estimated 2-3 divisions in both human and mouse bone marrow stem cells. Interestingly, this behavior is not observed in macrophages, which are the primary host cells of the Leishmania parasite. Transcriptional comparison of the quiescent and non-quiescent metabolic states confirmed the overall decrease of gene expression as a hallmark of quiescence. Quiescent amastigotes display a reduced size and signs of a rapid evolutionary adaptation response with genetic alterations. Our study provides further evidence that this quiescent state significantly enhances resistance to treatment. Moreover, transitioning through quiescence is highly compatible with sand fly transmission and increases the potential of parasites to infect cells. Collectively, this work identified stem cells in the bone marrow as a niche where Leishmania quiescence occurs, with important implications for antiparasitic treatment and acquisition of virulence traits.

Water-filtered infrared A irradiation exerts antifungal effects on the skin fungus Malassezia

Many common skin diseases are associated with changes in the microbiota. This applies for the commensal yeast Malassezia, which is linked to a wide range of skin disorders ranging from mild dandruff to severe seborrheic and atopic dermatitis, all of which have a detrimental impact on the individuals' quality of life. While antifungal medications offer relief in many cases, the challenges of disease recurrence and the emergence of resistance to the limited range of available antifungal drugs poses a pressing need for innovative therapeutic options. Here we examined the activity of water-filtered infrared A (wIRA) irradiation against Malassezia. wIRA's antimicrobial and wound healing properties make it an attractive option for localized, non-invasive, and contact-free treatment of superficial skin infections. Irradiation of Malassezia furfur with wIRA (570–1400 nm) resulted in a reduction of the yeast's metabolic activity. When put in contact with immune cells, wIRA-irradiated M. furfur was recovered at lower counts than non-irradiated M. furfur. Likewise, wIRA irradiation of M. furfur put in contact with keratinocytes, the primary host interface of the fungus in the skin, reduced the fungal counts, while the keratinocytes were not affected by the irradiation. The combination of wIRA with the photosensitizer methyl aminolevulinate exerted an additional antifungal effect on M. furfur, irrespective of the presence or absence of keratinocytes, suggesting an enhancement of the treatment effect when used in combination. These findings suggest that wIRA holds promise as a potential therapy for skin disorders associated with Malassezia.

COVID-19: A deadly outbreak on planet earth

Coronavirus may be a large group of viruses and recently identified coronavirus called SARS-CoV-2 or COVID-19 was first detected in Wuhan City, China. After that it spread rapidly to other countries. Some studies show positive, and few others exhibit negative relationship between COVID-19 and sunlight. There is controversy about its intermediate host. Snake, turtles, and pangolins are considered the intermediate hosts, however bat is regarded as the primary host. It belongs to Nidovirales order, family is Coronaviridae, and subfamily is Coronavirinae. The transmission may occur through various ways. The structure of COVID-19 is enveloped and spherical with a positive single strand. Various accessory, structural, and non-structural proteins are present in it. Life cycle involves attachment, entry, replication, translation, assembly, and then its release. B.1.1.7, B.1.351, p.1, and b.1.617 are a few important variants of SARS-CoV-2. An increase of cholesterol level supports the entry of SARS-CoV-2. Statins with lower cholesterol level lessens COVID-19 entry. Fever, cough, fatigue, headache, sputum production, diarrhea, dysphonia, etc. are common symptoms of COVID-19. RT-PCR, RT-LAMP, CT scan, antibodies and antigen are various tests for COVID-19 detection. Various drugs and convalescent plasma are used for its treatment. People are also now vaccinated, and these vaccines also have side effects like fever, fatigue, headache etc. Preventive measures must be carried out to prevent its spread.

Host-Feeding Behavior of Mosquitoes in the Florida Everglades.

Background: West Nile virus (WNV), Everglades virus (EVEV), and five species of Orthobunyavirus were isolated from mosquitoes collected in the Everglades in 2016-2017. Prior studies of blood meals of mosquitoes in southern Florida have related findings to acquisition and transmission of EVEV, St. Louis encephalitis virus, and WNV, but not the Orthobunyavirus viruses associated with the subgenus Melanoconion of the genus Culex. Materials and Methods: In the present study, blood-fed mosquitoes were collected in the Everglades in 2016, 2017, 2021, and 2022, and from an industrial site in Naples, FL in 2017. Blood meals were identified to host species by PCR assays using mitochondrial cytochrome b gene. Results: Blood meals were identified from Anopheles crucians complex and 11 mosquito species captured in the Florida Everglades and from 3 species collected from an industrial site. The largest numbers of blood-fed specimens were from Culex nigripalpus, Culex erraticus, Culex cedecei, and Aedes taeniorhynchus. Cx. erraticus fed on mammals, birds, and reptiles, particularly American alligator. This mosquito species could transmit WNV to American alligator in the wild. Cx. nigripalpus acquired blood meals primarily from birds and mammals and frequently fed on medium-sized mammals and white-tailed deer. Water and wading birds were the primary avian hosts for Cx. nigripalpus and Cx. erraticus in the Everglades. Wading birds are susceptible to WNV and could serve as reservoir hosts. Cx. cedecei fed on five species of rodents, particularly black and hispid cotton rats. EVEV and three different species of Orthobunyavirus have been isolated from the hispid cotton rat and Cx. cedecei in the Everglades. Cx. cedecei is likely acquiring and transmitting these viruses among hispid cotton rats and other rodents. The marsh rabbit was a frequent host for An. crucians complex. An. crucians complex, and other species could acquire Tensaw virus from rabbits. Conclusions: Our study contributes to a better understanding of the host and viral associations of mosquito species in southwestern Florida.

Spatiotemporal Control of Protein Refolding through Flash-Change Reaction Conditions.

Recombinant protein production is an essential aspect of biopharmaceutical manufacturing, with Escherichia coli serving as a primary host organism. Protein refolding is vital for protein production; however, conventional refolding methods face challenges such as scale-up limitations and difficulties in controlling protein conformational changes on a millisecond scale. In this study, we demonstrate the novel application of flow microreactors (FMR) in controlling protein conformational changes on a millisecond scale, enabling efficient refolding processes and opening up new avenues in the science of FMR technology. FMR technology has been primarily employed for small-molecule synthesis, but our novel approach successfully expands its application to protein refolding, offering precise control of the buffer pH and solvent content. Using interleukin-6 as a model, the system yielded an impressive 96% pure refolded protein and allowed for gram-scale production. This FMR system allows flash changes in the reaction conditions, effectively circumventing protein aggregation during refolding. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to use FMR for protein refolding, which offers a more efficient and scalable method for protein production. The study results highlight the utility of the FMR as a high-throughput screening tool for streamlined scale-up and emphasize the importance of understanding and controlling intermediates in the refolding process. The FMR technique offers a promising approach for enhancing protein refolding efficiency and has demonstrated its potential in streamlining the process from laboratory-scale research to industrial-scale production, making it a game-changing technology in the field.