Primary Fuels Research Articles

COVID-19 and Beyond: COVID-19 Interventions and Power Plant Emissions in the United States

Short- and long-term changes in electricity generating unit (EGU) emissions were observed during COVID-19 public health interventions in the United States. In a generalized synthetic control framework, we employ weekly EGU SO2, NOx, and CO2 emissions data from EPA’s Clean Air Markets Database and location-specific meteorology from 2010 to 2019 to estimate each EGU’s hypothetical business as usual (BAU) emissions throughout 2020. We find that over 60% (covering >50% of total electricity generation) of EGUs saw SO2, NOx, and CO2 emissions increases relative to BAU, with most of the increases occurring in the eastern U.S. We find increases relative to BAU in the March–April stringent lockdown period for SO2, NOx, and CO2 of 44% (4500 tons/week), 23% (2200 tons/week), and 14% (2.3 million tons/week), respectively, with similar results from March to December 2020. We find that EGUs using coal as primary fuels are the main driver of increased emissions due to increased operations, and SO2 emissions increases at coal EGUs led to a 28% increase in PM2.5 related to coal SO2 emissions relative to BAU across March–December. We find increases in SO2 and NOx emissions factors at coal EGUs in 2020 relative to 2019 that likely played a role in these increases, and we identify changes in coal fuel consumption and price that may have played a role.

Decomposition and decoupling analysis of carbon dioxide emissions in electricity generation by primary fossil fuels in Turkey

Decomposition and decoupling analysis of carbon dioxide emissions in electricity generation by primary fossil fuels in Turkey

Conventional and advanced exergy and exergoeconomic analysis of a novel multi-fueled cogeneration system with desalination

This work presents the economic, advanced thermodynamic, and exergoeconomic studies of a system for producing power and freshwater. The proposed system comprises a multi-effect desalination system, an organic Rankine cycle, a centrifuge, and process heaters by utilizing a mix of bagasse and municipal solid waste as primary fuels. The amounts of avoidable, unavoidable, endogenous, and exogenous shares of exergy destruction for the cycle’s components have been calculated by an advanced exergy method. For the integrated cycle, the electricity generation and freshwater productions are 36.6 MW and 7000 m3 per day, respectively. The costs of electricity production and water desalination are 2.6 US$/GJ and 4.6 US$/m3. To present an improved understanding of the system operation, an advanced exergy study is conducted on each involved component of the system at their operating conditions to identify the share of the avoidable irreversibilities. For the integrated system, 85% of the total exergy destruction is calculated to be unavoidable and just 15% of the estimated amount is avoidable. In this case, the opportunity to enhance the system’s operation is roughly limited. Additionally, 76% of the exergy destruction is endogenous, and the remaining belongs to exogenous exergy destruction.

Organocatalytic Upgrading of Biomass Derived Building Blocks

AbstractThe depletion of finite primary fossil fuels we are facing makes necessary a deep metamorphosis in fundamental parts of the chemical industry. A progressive transition from petro‐based starting materials toward renewable biomass‐derived sources will have to take place in the synthesis of added‐value chemicals, important for our everyday life, such as pharmaceuticals, polymers, agrochemicals etc. Moreover, greener processes, carried out under friendlier reaction conditions, must be designed to address current concerns about the climate change and the resulting pressing need to reduce the environmental footprint of chemical processes. To this end, organocatalysis could offer a valuable opportunity for upgrading biomass‐derived platform molecules in line with the principles of Green Chemistry. This review presents some of recent and remarkable advancements in this emerging area. Organocatalysis has proven to be an efficient tool to transform low value bio‐based renewable platform building blocks into new high value bio‐based chemicals, with potential applications as synthetic intermediates, innovative materials and pharmaceutically active compounds.

Self-Reported Primary Cooking Fuels Use and Risk of Chronic Digestive Diseases: A Prospective Cohort Study of 0.5 Million Chinese Adults.

Household air pollution (HAP) from inefficient combustion of solid fuels is a major health concern worldwide. However, prospective evidence on the health impacts of solid cooking fuels and risks of chronic digestive diseases remains scarce. We explored the effects of self-reported primary cooking fuels on the incidence of chronic digestive diseases. The China Kadoorie Biobank recruited 512,726 participants 30-79 years of age from 10 regions across China. Information on primary cooking fuels at the current and previous two residences was collected via self-reporting at baseline. Incidence of chronic digestive diseases was identified through electronic linkage and active follow-up. Cox proportional hazards regression models were used to estimate adjusted hazard ratios (HRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for the associations of self-reported long-term cooking fuel patterns and weighted duration of self-reported solid cooking fuel use with chronic digestive diseases incidence. Linear trend was tested by assigning the medians of weighted duration in each group and then taking those as continuous variables in the models. Subgroup analyses were undertaken across the baseline characteristics of participants. During y of follow-up, 16,810 new cases of chronic digestive diseases were documented, among which 6,460 were diagnosed as cancers. Compared with long-term cleaner fuel use, self-reported long-term use of solid cooking fuels (i.e., coal, wood) was associated with elevated risks of chronic digestive diseases (; 95% CI: 1.02, 1.13), including nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) (; 95% CI: 1.10, 1.87), hepatic fibrosis/cirrhosis (; 95% CI: 1.05, 1.73), cholecystitis (; 95% CI: 1.07, 1.32), and peptic ulcers (; 95% CI: 1.00, 1.33). The longer the weighted duration of self-reported solid cooking fuel use, the higher the risks of chronic digestive diseases, hepatic fibrosis/cirrhosis, peptic ulcers, and esophageal cancer (). The aforementioned associations were modified by sex and body mass index (BMI). Positive associations of always solid cooking fuel use with chronic digestive disease, hepatic fibrosis/cirrhosis, NAFLD, and cholecystitis were observed among women but not men. The longer the weighted duration of self-reported solid cooking fuel use, the higher the risk of NAFLD among those with a BMI . Long-term self-reported solid cooking fuels use was associated with higher risks of chronic digestive diseases. The positive association of HAP from solid cooking fuels with chronic digestive diseases indicates for an imminent promotion of cleaner fuels as public health interventions. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP10486.

Optimized global reaction mechanisms for H2, CO, CH4, and their mixtures

Global reaction mechanisms (GRMs) are widely used in combustion engineering. However, it is difficult to find GRMs commonly available for various mixtures of H2, CO, and CH4 (with air), which are likely to be the primary fuels in the future. In this study, a series of GRMs were optimized to follow the results of the five detailed reaction mechanisms (GRI 3.0, USC II, San Diego, FFCM-1, CRECK) for the essential fuels (H2, CO, CH4) and their mixtures (at 300 K and 1 bar). At first, a 1-step GRM of H2+air (R1) and another of CO + air (R2), were optimized to reproduce their respective laminar burning velocities (LBVs). After that, an additional water-gas shift reaction (R3) was suggested to improve the prediction for the H2+CO + air mixture. Similarly, a 1-step GRM (M1) was developed for the fuel-lean mixtures of CH4+air, and a 2-step GRM (R1+M1) was proposed for the fuel-lean mixtures of H2+CH4+air. In the case of the mixture of H2+CO + CH4+air, an additional methane oxidation reaction (M1L) producing H2 and CO was suggested, and a 4-step GRM (R1+R2+R3+M1L) showed reliable results in the fuel-lean conditions. However, to get reliable LBVs over all equivalence ratios, two additional reactions (M2+M3) were proposed to reflect the endothermic reaction. Furthermore, the pre-exponential factor of the methane oxidation reaction (M1R) varied as a function of the hydrogen concentration in the fuel. Conclusively, acceptable LBVs could be obtained for the H2+CO + CH4+air mixtures in a moderate temperature range (300 K–600 K).

Experimental Investigations on Dual-Fuel Engine Fueled with Tertiary Renewable Fuel Combinations of Biodiesel and Producer—Hydrogen Gas Using Response Surface Methodology

The effects of producer gas (PG), hydrogen (H2), and neem oil methyl ester-blended fuel (NeOME B20) flow rate optimization on dual fuel (DF) engine performance were examined in the current work. PG and H2 were used as primary fuels, while NeOME B20 was used as a secondary pilot fuel in the DF engine. The DF engine’s performance and pollution levels were optimized using response surface methodology (RSM) and the results were compared with experimental values. The full factorial design (FFD) has been used to minimize the number of experiments. The design of experiments (DOEs) with an experimental design matrix of 27 distinct combinations were taken into consideration. The primary goal of the effort is to optimize different fuel flow rates for better brake thermal efficiency (BTE) and lower tail pipe exhaust pollutants. The developed RSM model is validated with experimental results for the selected fuel flow rates using a desirability approach. Experiments were carried out at a constant speed of 1500 rpm, compression ratio (CR) of 17.5, injector opening pressure (IOP) 240 bar, six-hole nozzle with 0.2 mm diameter, and injection timing (IT) of 27° before top dead center (bTDC). The flow rates of NeOME B20, PG, and H2 varied from 0.4 to 0.8 kg/h, 7 to 9 kg/h, and 0.029 to 0.059 kg/h, respectively. Optimum flow rates for NeOME B20, PG, and H2 were found to be 0.8, 7, and 0.044, kg/h respectively for the maximized break thermal efficiency (BTE) and reduced exhaust emission levels. However, a marginal increase in NOx was noticed. In addition, the delay period and combustion duration were reduced, and the cylinder pressure (CP) and heat release rate (HRR) were increased for the optimal condition with a desirability of 0.998. Overall, DF operation with selected fuel combinations was found to be smooth and satisfactory.

Study on Fuel Selection for a Long-Life Small Lead-Based Reactor

The choice of an appropriate fuel can effectively prolong the refueling cycle of a reactor core. The Th-U cycle and U-Pu cycle are commonly used fuel breeding cycles. Oxide fuels, nitride fuels, and metal fuels are the primary candidate fuels for lead-based reactors. For fuel selection, a core model of a 60 MWt reactor was established. The results show that the breeding performance of the breeding fuel Th-232 is better than that of U-238, and the driving performance of the driving fuel Pu-239 is better than that of U-235. Therefore, PuO2-ThO2, PuN-ThN, and Pu-Th-Zr fuels may have good performance. By comparing the reactivity loss of three types of fuel, it was found that the reactivity loss of PuN-ThN fuel is the smallest. Hence, using PuN-ThN fuel as a core fuel can result in a longer refueling cycle. On this basis, PuN-ThN fuel was used in the preliminary design of the 120 MWt core physical model. It can be seen that when PuN-ThN fuel is used as the core fuel, a smaller reactivity swing (1408 pcm), smaller power peak factor, and super long refueling cycle (more than 30 years) can be obtained.

Socioeconomic Determinants of Household Stove Use-Choice and Stove Stacking Patterns in Ghana Using Multinomial Logit Models

Background and Aim: Air pollution is the fourth-highest risk factor for premature deaths globally and the second-highest risk factor for premature deaths in Ghana. Understanding the socioeconomic correlates of cooking stove/fuel choices and stove stacking patterns is a precursor to designing effective household air pollution interventions. Methods: The study used a quantitative cross-sectional design to collect data from sampled districts in all 16 regions of Ghana, covering about 7,400 household-level respondents in 370 enumeration areas (EAs); across 177 urban EAs and 193 rural EAs. Face-to-face interviews were conducted at home. The questionnaire was designed to elicit information on primary, secondary, and tertiary cooking stoves and fuels. Results: Use of LPG correlates positively with education (Primary education-RRR:2.377, p<0.01, CI: 95), (Middle/JHS education-RRR:3.019, p<0.0, CI:95), (Technical/SHS education-RRR:6.491, p<0.01, CI: 95), (Post-secondary/University education-RRR:14.41, p<0.01, CI:95). Similarly, use of an LPG-charcoal stove mix compared to Charcoal stove-open fire mix correlates positively with education. All else equal, households with more than one cookstove (RRR:1.185, p<0.05, CI:95), and urban households (RRR:6.488, p<0.01, CI:95) reported using LPG stoves as their primary cookstove more frequently than did households using a single stove or living in rural areas. The age of the primary cook (RRR:1.44, p<0.1, CI:95), household income (RRR: 1.052, p<0.1, CI:95), and urbanicity (RRR:4.134, p<0.01, CI:95) were statistically significant in predicting use of an LPG-Charcoal mix compared to Charcoal stove-open fire mix. LPG, charcoal and 3-stone (open fire) stoves refer to cooking devices that are fueled by combustible gas, charcoal and wood respectively. Conclusion: Most households in Ghana use multiple cookstoves and fuels. Biomass fuel use is concentrated in poorer, less educated, and rural households. Equitable household energy transitions will require particular attention to encouraging sustained exclusive use of clean fuels in these communities to improve health. Keywords: socioeconomic factors, cookstove, choice, stove stacking,

Recent advances in the energy harvesting device technology using hetero-atom doped carbon nanotubes

Carbon nanotubes, graphene, and fullerene are forms of carbon finding widespread applications in numerous fields such as energy storage devices such as batteries and fuel cells, cosmetics, nano-electronics, nano-pharmaceuticals, nano-biotechnology, military devices and equipment, construction, coatings, cutting tools, catalysis and many more. The huge technological advancements, globalization, and never seen industrialization can gain more momentum only with the ready availability of sufficient energy resources and their harvesting. Fossil fuels remained one of the most important primary fuels all over the world and now the shift is towards more use of non-renewable energy resources. At the end of the last century, Svante Arrenius firstly proposed the interconnection between the increased concentration of gases such as CO2 in the atmosphere and the rise in the average temperature through global warming on our planet. This effect gets pronounced effects in various other natural cycles too as observed through various natural events in the 21st century. There are several global warming gases, but the principal emission associated with this change is carbon dioxide. Due to such environmental issues, emphasis is on the use of non-conventional energy sources such as solar, wind, geothermal, ocean, etc. Besides such sources, extensive work is going on the use of fuel cells and modern battery technology using carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs and MWCNTs). Presently, various advanced batteries and fuel cells are being developed using CNTs on an Industrial scale. In the last decade, efforts are taken to control the optical and electronic properties of CNTs incorporating hetero-atom (N, P, Si, S, Al, Ni, etc.) as a dopant for desired structural functionalization. The recent advancements in the field of energy harvesting devices (batteries or fuel cells) using hetero-atom-doped CNTs have been discussed here.

Fuel stacking implications for willingness to pay for cooking fuels in peri-urban Kathmandu Valley, Nepal

Overcoming cooking fuel “stacking” is a major challenge impeding transitions to clean cooking in low- and middle-income countries. Though clean fuels are increasingly available in these countries' urban centers, continued use of polluting technology reinforces energy poverty, due to time costs associated with fuel collection, the household air pollution generated, and the contribution of the latter to dangerous levels of ambient air pollution. While there is much evidence of the association between income and clean fuel use, the impacts of policy instruments that alter fuel prices have been underexplored. We conducted a double-bounded contingent valuation experiment with 360 households who use firewood and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) in peri-urban areas of Kathmandu Valley, to elicit respondents' strength of preference regarding their primary cooking fuels. We examine the determinants of cooking fuel stacking, the relationship between fuel stacking behavior and preferences for cooking fuel, and calculate willingness to pay (WTP) for households' primary fuels. We find that stacking is associated with household demographic variables and the time burden of firewood collection; meanwhile, wealthier households, those having more empowered women, and those affected by the 2015 trade blockade in Nepal use more LPG. Fuel stacking among primary LPG users is negatively related to demand for LPG. Among primary LPG users, WTP for a 14.2 kg LPG cylinder ranges between 1267 and 1496 NPR (11–15 USD, or between 3.5 and 4.9 NPR/MJ of useful energy), but WTP for 1 MJ of useful cooking energy is considerably higher due to the highly price inelastic demand for firewood (42–145 NPR/MJ, 0.36–1.25 USD/MJ). Our findings have implications for the pricing of clean fuels in urban Nepal, as they indicate an asymmetric response around price changes for LPG and firewood.

Decarbonisation of heat: Analysis of the potential of low temperature waste heat in UK industries

The UK will need to decarbonise low temperature industrial waste heat (up to ≈250 °C) to achieve net-zero greenhouse gas emission targets. Industrial waste heat production represents an opportunity for reduction in the use of primary fuels used in the production of commodities. Energy inefficient processes in addition to increased emissions raises the cost of plant operation, – an undesirable scenario for both industrial competitiveness and the environment. Less is known about the quantity and potential applications for recovered low temperature industrial waste heat in UK and the quantification and characterisation of the resource can provide the needed impetus for the development and adoption of green technologies to help achieve the 2050 Net-Zero target. In this work the potential magnitude of the low temperature industrial waste heat resource in the UK is analysed by using sector-level energy intensity values for different industries while drawing on corresponding estimates from previous studies in the USA and by closely mapping the UK Standard Industrial Classification (SIC 2007) against sectors in the USA (NAICS [North American Industry Classification System]). The assessment undertaken finds that the recoverable potential of low temperature waste heat up to ≈250 °C could be up to 83.7% of the total estimated waste heat potential in UK industry. Significant opportunities exist in this low temperature range for waste heat recovery actions at individual sites. Research and Development (R&D) into alternative improved methods for waste heat recovery, storage, and use (WHRSU) technologies could also produce significant positive environmental and industrial impact.

Mathematical modeling the ignition of several gas hydrate particles

Gas hydrates are regarded as a high-potential type of alternative fuel for the power industry, transportation, space, and special-purpose equipment. Due to their high conversion rates and safe long-distance transportation by all means of transport, gas hydrates can be widely used as primary and secondary fuels. No one has yet developed a general theory of safe and effective gas hydrate ignition under different thermal conditions reproducing those of promising applications. There are no prediction models for an array of particles with different shapes and porosities. This research aims at studying such conditions. Using the experimental data obtained, we have developed a physical and mathematical model for numerical studies of gas hydrate ignition behavior. Here we consider the most promising compositions of methane-based hydrates. The ignition delay times are determined for the emerging gas-vapor mixture when two and three hydrate particles are heated in variable arrangement schemes and at different distances between them. We also determine how the key factors—size, number, and distance between hydrate particles, temperature of external gaseous medium, component composition of particles, as well as their shape and porosity—influence the ignition speed in the systems of interest. Approximations are obtained to predict the gas hydrate ignition characteristics as a function of the key factors and to extend the modeling results to the thermal conditions of the current and future power plants.

Variability in the household use of cooking fuels: The importance of dishes cooked, non-cooking end uses, and seasonality in understanding fuel stacking in rural and urban slum communities in six north Indian states

Expanding the use of clean cooking fuels has been a priority for the Government of India in recent years to obtain potential public health and women’s empowerment benefits. Evidence to date suggests most recent clean fuel adopters continue to use polluting biomass for some household energy needs. However, the specific ways households use both polluting and clean fuels together, known as fuel stacking, is not fully understood.We use survey data from 2,765 households in rural communities and urban slums in six north Indian states to detail fuel stacking practices. Half of rural and one-third of urban slum households stacked a clean and polluting fuel together. We classify stackers into four groups based on their reported primary and secondary fuels (e.g., primary gas and secondary firewood). We observe significant variations in the intensity of secondary fuel use among households in the same stacking group. Across all stackers, about half use their secondary fuel daily, while about one-fifth use it less than once per week. Non-cooking energy needs, like space and water heating, motivates 40% of biomass users to use polluting fuels. Seasonality is another important consideration as 75% of fuel stackers reported switching their primary fuel across seasons of the year, with nearly 90% primarily using gas during the rainy season.Our results highlight considerable heterogeneity in fuel use behaviors among households in the same stacking category. We also underscore that cooking gas is popular and able to meet all cooking needs, but it is important to consider the use of biomass for non-cooking tasks to enable a complete transition to clean cooking fuels. These results signify the need for more nuanced fuel stacking information in policy design and program evaluation.

PENGOLAHAN MINYAK JELANTAH SEBAGAI PENGGANTI BAHAN BAKAR MINYAK PADA KOMPOR MINYAK BERTEKANAN

Used cooking oil (Jelantah's oil) is a frying rest oil which can't be used again to fry because it contains compounds that are quite dangerous for human health, which can be destructive for humans healthy. Beside to reduce an ambient contamination, used cooking oil can be recycled as an alternative fuel, in this case as to replace kerosene. The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of the primary Air Fuel Ratio on the combustion process in pressurized stove oil and knowing whether or not the direct combustion process of used cooking oil as an alternative fuel. The filth on used cooking oil must be removed to avoid a streaming gagging on koil. Analyzing used cooking oil water rate. Fuel tank loaded with used cooking oil. Fill the compressor with an air to pressurize the fuel tank. Used cooking oil streamed inside the tank by manages flow rate then stream air with regulatory crane so up to scale which particular on flowmeter gases. Ruled air flow rate with scales regulatory crane flowmeter until up to stable state on appreciative given. Measuring temperature on burn tool with positioning different one (Spuyer, burner, burner's tip, kindled tip). The larger the primary Air Fuel Ratio, the better the mixing so that the total conversion of triglycerides into CO2 and CO products is greater. Used cooking oil may be directly used as an alternative fuel into an oil stove, especially pressured oil stove.

Forecasting Crude Oil Consumption in Poland Based on LSTM Recurrent Neural Network

Primary fuels, i.e., crude oil, natural gas, and power coal, dominate the total global demand for primary energy. Among them, crude oil plays a particularly important role due to the universality of applications and the practical lack of substitutes in transport. Crude oil is also one of the main sources of primary energy in Poland and accounts for around 30% of the energy consumed. Poland covers only 3% of its needs from domestic deposits. The rest is imported from Russia, Saudi Arabia, Nigeria, Great Britain, Kazakhstan, and Norway. Due to such a high import of raw material, Poland must anticipate future demand. On the one hand, this article aims to analyze the current (2020) and future (2040) crude oil consumption on the Polish market. The study analyzes the geopolitical and economic foundations of the functioning of the energy raw-materials market, the crude oil supply, the structure of Poland’s energy mix, and assumptions about the energy policy until 2040. On the other hand, conclusions from the research were used to build a model of crude oil consumption for the internal market. It has been also shown that the consumption of crude oil on the Polish market is a nonlinear phenomenon with a small set of statistical data, which makes it difficult to build an accurate model. This paper proposes a new model based on artificial neural networks that includes long-term memory (LSTM). The accuracy of the constructed model was assessed using the MSE, Theil, and Janus coefficients. The results show that LSTM models can be used to forecast crude oil consumption, and they cope with the nonstationary and nonlinear time series. Many important contemporary problems posed in the field of energy economy are also discussed, and it is proposed to solve them with the use of modern machine-learning tools.

Embodied carbon, embodied energy and renewable energy: a review of environmental product declarations

Environmental product declarations (EPD) to EN 15804 provide information about the embodied carbon dioxide of construction products – their life cycle greenhouse gas emissions – alongside reporting the use of renewable and non-renewable primary energy and secondary fuels, among the other environmental indicators. As the number of EPD to EN 15804 increases, they become a useful data resource to consider these impacts. In moving towards a reduction in the embodied carbon of products, it is necessary to use renewable energy resources efficiently to allow the transition to net zero; this is because of the increasing demands on renewable energy to decarbonise industry, transport and domestic energy consumption and the limited capacity to expand renewable generation. This paper reviews published EPD data for structural and reinforcing steels, cement, bricks and structural timber products, and considers, for the cradle to gate ‘product’ life cycle stage, exploring the relationship of embodied carbon with embodied energy (total energy used), the balance of renewable and non-renewable energy, and the efficient use of energy. It is found, for bricks and timber, that EPD show products that use a greater percentage of renewable energy have higher embodied energy, suggesting a less efficient use of renewable energy for these products.

Effects of Ethanol and Methanol on the Combustion Characteristics of Gasoline with the Revised Variation Disturbance Method.

This paper proposes a revised variation disturbance method to provide valuable information and reference for fuel design or optimization of internal combustion engines to realize the comprehensive and quantitative evaluation of the effects of blending agents on the combustion performance of primary fuels. In this method, methanol and ethanol are blended into gasoline to form six kinds of alcohol–gasoline (E10, E20, E30, M10, M20, and M30). Then, the ignition delay, adiabatic flame temperature, component concentration, fuel-burning rate, extinction strain rate, and CO emission of gasoline and alcohol–gasoline are studied by system simulation in a wide range of operating conditions. Based on the new variation disturbance method, the effects of methanol and ethanol on the combustion performance of gasoline are next analyzed globally and characterized quantitatively. The comprehensive results of ethanol and methanol on the gasoline’s combustion are visually presented. The method proposed in this paper is preliminarily validated based on the analysis of the microscopic mechanism of combustion. The results show that the blending of ethanol and methanol has positive effects on gasoline combustion, and ethanol can rapidly ignite the gasoline in a wide range of operating conditions and is superior to methanol in terms of fuel combustion, stability, and pollutant discharge. Based on the treatment of simulated values of six combustion characteristics selected in this paper and the calculations of the variation disturbance method, the total disturbance values of ethanol and methanol to gasoline combustion are obtained as 0.8493 and 0.2605, respectively. That is, ethanol has a more significant effect on improving the combustion performance of gasoline than methanol. In addition, based on the analysis results of the combustion, it is found that the blending of ethanol enlarges the reaction of notable components in gasoline. This finding also proves the effectiveness and validity of the scientific method utilized in this paper.

Influences of hydrogen and various gas fuel addition to different liquid fuels on the performance characteristics of a spark ignition engine

This study reports the impacts of dual fuel mixtures on the theoretical performance characteristics of a spark ignition engine (SIE). The effects of addition of liquefied hydrogen, methane, butane, propane (additive fuels) into gasoline, iso-octane, benzene, toluene, hexane, ethanol and methanol fuels (primary fuels) on the variation of power, indicated mean effective pressure (IMEP), thermal efficiency, exergy efficiency, were examined by using a combustion model. The fuel additives were ranged from 10 to 50% by mass. The results exhibited that the ratios of hydrogen, methane, butane, propane noticeably affect the performance of the engine. The maximum increase ratio of power is 82.59% with 50% of toluene ratio and its maximum decrease ratio is 10.84% with 50% of methanol ratio in hydrogen mixtures. The maximum increase ratio of thermal efficiency and exergy efficiency are observed as 26.75% and 32.23% with the combustion of benzene-hydrogen mixtures. The maximum decrease ratio of thermal efficiency is 29.71% with the combustion of 50% of methanol ratio and it is 21.95% for the exergy efficieny with the combustion of 50% of ethanol ratio in hydrogen mixtures. The power, IMEP, thermal efficiency and exergy efficiency of primary fuels demonstrate different variation characteristics with respect to type and ratio of additive fuels.

Impacts of Paris agreement, fossil fuel consumption, and net energy imports on CO2 emissions: a panel data approach for three West European countries

The Paris agreement is a legally binding international treaty on climate change. This study examines the Paris agreement and other explanatory variables such as net energy imports, and consumption of three significant fossil fuel impacts on carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions in three selected European countries, including Germany, Spain, and France. We employed fully modified OLS (FMOLS) and dynamic OLS (DOLS) regression methods to evaluate the effects based on panel data from 1995 to 2019. The results suggest that the impact of the Paris agreement is negligible. According to the FMOLS model, the Paris agreement reduces CO2 emissions by roughly 1%. It seems that the Paris agreement is less effective than it was hoped to be. For consumption of three primary fossil fuels and net energy import effects on the CO2 emissions, the results are as expected to be because any increase in the parameters will grow in carbon dioxide emissions in both models. It is worth mentioning that the most crucial factor in CO2 emissions is the crude oil consumption that has an immense impact on both models. In the other words, a 1% increase in the usage of crude oil will release 0.56% CO2 in the atmosphere.Graphical abstract