Primary Fiber Research Articles

The inflorescence stem fibers ofArabidopsis thaliana revoluta (ifl1) mutant

Arabidopsis thaliana is gradually gaining significance as a model for wood and fiber formation.revolute/ifl1 is an important mutant in this respect. To better characterize the fiber system of therevolute/ifl1 mutant, we grew plants of two alleles (rev-9 in Israel andrev-1 in the USA) and examined the fiber system of the inflorescence stems using both brightfield and polarized light. Microscopic examination of sections of plants belonging to the two different alleles clearly revealed that, contrary to previous views, in 18 (13 in Israel and 5 in Ohio) out of 30 stems (20 in Israel and 10 in Ohio) the mutant produced the primary wavy fiber system of the inflorescence stems. Our findings are further supported by the fact that fibers are seen in the figures published in other studies of the mutant even when it was stated that there were no fibers. The impression of a total lack of the wavy band of fibers is in many cases just a result of poorly lignified secondary walls. This specific gene that reduces lignification in fibers is of great significance for biotechnological developments for the paper industry and thus for the global economy and ecology. We propose thatrevoluta, the first name given to this mutant (Talbert and others 1995), is more appropriate thanifl1.

Number of conceptuses in utero affects porcine fetal muscle development.

Unmodified, third parity, control sows (CTR; n = 30) or sows subjected to unilateral oviduct ligation before breeding (LIG; n = 30), were slaughtered at either day 30 or day 90 of gestation and used to determine the effects of numbers of conceptuses in utero on prenatal, and particularly muscle fibre, development. Ovulation rate, number of conceptuses in utero, placental and fetal size, and (day 90 sows) fetal organ and semitendinosus muscle development were recorded. Tubal ligation reduced (P < 0.05) the number of viable embryos at day 30 and fetuses at day 90. Placental weight at day 30 and day 90, and fetal weight at day 90, were lower (P < 0.05) in CTR sows. All body organs except the brain were lighter, and the brain:liver weight ratio was higher in CTR fetuses (P < 0.05), indicative of brain sparing and intrauterine growth restriction in fetuses from CTR sows. Muscle weight, muscle cross-sectional area and the total number of secondary fibres were also lower (P < 0.05) in CTR fetuses. The number of primary fibres, the secondary:primary muscle fibre ratio, and the distribution of myosin heavy chain-Ibeta, -IIa, fetal and embryonic isoforms did not differ between groups. Thus, even the relatively modest uterine crowding occurring naturally in CTR sows negatively affected placental and fetal development and the number of secondary muscle fibres. Consequences of more extreme crowding in utero on fetal and postnatal development, resulting from changing patterns of early embryonic survival, merit further investigation.

Mechanism of Fiber Formation by Interfacial Polyelectrolyte Complexation

A four-step mechanism is hypothesized for the process of fiber formation by interfacial polyelectrolyte complexation: (1) formation of a polyionic complex film at the interface that acts as a viscous barrier to free mixing; (2) scattering of this complex by a drawing motion, creating submicron “nuclear fibers”; (3) growth of “nuclear fibers”, with an accompanying decrease in the viscosity of the surrounding polyelectrolyte matrix; (4) coalescence of “nuclear fibers”, resulting in a thicker primary fiber and gel droplets at regular intervals along its axis. Presented evidence include light and confocal microscopy of the fiber structure, detailed observation of the fiber drawing process, turbidity experiments to measure the stability of the interface, effect of polyelectrolyte solution concentrations and contact area at the interface on fiber dimensions, and identification of two critical draw rates that can be related to the proposed fiber-forming mechanism.

Marked increase in the rate of ocular lens regeneration in the newt, Cynops pyrrhogaster, following partial body exposure to low dose X-rays.

In recent years, concern over the stimulating effects of low-dose X-rays has been growing. Therefore, the effects of low-dose X-irradiation on lens regeneration in the newt were examined. Newts were subjected to sham or whole-body X-ray exposure at a dose of 0.2 Gy or 0.4 Gy, delivered at a rate of 0.43 Gy min(-1). The eyeballs were fixed in formalin solution, embedded in paraffin and assessed histologically. On day 14 after lens removal, unexposed animals showed the formation of a hollow epithelial vesicle of depigmented cells continuous with the laminae of the iris corresponding to the expected regeneration stage (Reyer's regeneration stage II). In contrast, lenses from newts exposed to a 0.2 Gy dose of X-rays showed some formation of the primary lens fibre nucleus corresponding to the fibre differentiation stage (Reyer's regeneration stage III-early). Thus, low-dose X-irradiation induced regeneration compared with the unexposed groups. An acceleration from Reyer's stage II to III-early was also found on day 14 following irradiation of only the upper belly, including the spleen. The effects of low-dose X-irradiation on lens regeneration may be mediated by changes in immune activity.

Increased maternal nutrition of sows has no beneficial effects on muscle fiber number or postnatal growth and has no impact on the meat quality of the offspring.

The objective of this study was to examine how increased feed intake of the sow during early to mid-gestation affects sow performance and the muscle fiber number, performance, and technological meat quality of the offspring. Thirty-nine pregnant sows (Landrace x Large White sows mated to Landrace or Large White boars) in their fourth parity were assigned to one of three treatments: 1) the sows were either fed restrictively (control = 15 MJ of NE/d from d 1 to 90, then 24 MJ of NE/d from d 91 to 112, and again 15 MJ of NE/d from d 113 to 115 of gestation); 2) fed ad libitum from d 25 to 50 (A25-50); or 3) ad libitum from d 25 to 70 (A25-70) and as control in the remaining periods. The offspring were weaned at 4 wk of age and had free access to feed from 2 wk of age until slaughter. They were slaughtered litterwise at an average body weight of 104 +/- 14 kg. Estimates for total, primary (P-), and secondary (S-) muscle fiber number; muscle fiber area; and DNA and RNA content were analyzed in semitendinosus muscle (ST) samples from the heaviest, middle, and lightest weight (LW) pigs of each sex within litter selected at slaughter. Technological meat quality traits (pH at 24 h postmortem, drip loss, Minolta color, and pigment) were analyzed in longissimus dorsi muscle. Fiber number, fiber area, and concentrations and content of DNA and RNA of the offspring were not significantly affected by increased maternal nutrition. The ST muscle weight was lower in offspring from A25-50 than control sows (P = 0.019). Average daily gain, carcass weight, and the muscle deposition rate also were numerically lower for A25-50 than control and A25-70 pigs. An interaction between treatment and pig weight was found for muscle deposition rate (P = 0.006), in that LW pigs from treatment A25-50 had a lower deposition rate than LW pigs from control. We found no effect of treatment on the meat quality traits in the offspring. Also, barrows had a higher (P < 0.05) number of P-fibers, higher daily gain, and carcass weight than female pigs. No differences were found on any meat quality traits between sexes. Thus, ad libitum feeding of pregnant sows from d 25 to 50 or d 25 to 70 of gestation did not have any beneficial effect on muscle fiber number and area in the offspring. It seems that maternal ad libitum feeding from d 25 to 50 in gestation had a negative effect on postnatal muscle growth, with especially the LW pigs being affected.

Expression of murine ELL-associated factor 2 (Eaf2) is developmentally regulated.

Eaf2, ELL-associated factor 2, encodes a protein that is homologous to the human EAF1, which was shown to interact with the transcriptional elongation factor MEN/ELL. During mouse embryogenesis, Eaf2 is preferentially expressed in the central nervous system and in sensory and neuroendocrine organs, including the brain, spinal cord, cranial and spinal ganglia, developing otocyst, the retina, and the pituitary. Eaf2 transcripts were also found in sites where active epithelium-mesenchymal interactions are occurring. These included the invaginating tooth buds, mammary gland anlage, submandibular glands, the lung, the pancreas, and the kidney. Other sites of expression included bladder and intestine. In the developing lens, Eaf2 transcripts were absent in the proliferating anterior lens epithelial cells but were present in the terminally differentiated primary lens fiber cells and also in nonproliferating lens fiber cells in the equatorial zone where lens epithelial cells withdraw from cell cycle and terminally differentiate into secondary lens fiber cells. This spatially restricted pattern of Eaf2 expression in the developing lens suggests that Eaf2 may play an important role in regulating lens maturation.

Variable maternal nutrition and growth hormone treatment in the second quarter of pregnancy in pigs alter semitendinosus muscle in adolescent progeny.

Maternal nutrition and growth hormone (GH) treatment during early- to mid-pregnancy can each alter the subsequent growth and differentiation of muscle in progeny. We have investigated the effects of varying maternal nutrition and maternal treatment with porcine (p) GH during the second quarter of pregnancy in gilts on semitendinosus muscle cross-sectional area and fibre composition of progeny, and relationships between maternal and progeny measures and progeny muscularity. Fifty-three Large White x Landrace gilts, pregnant to Large White x Duroc boars, were fed either 2.2 kg (about 35 % ad libitum intake) or 3.0 kg commercial ration (13.5 MJ digestible energy, 150 g crude protein (N x 6.25)/kg DM)/d and injected with 0, 4 or 8 mg pGH/d from day 25 to 50 of pregnancy, then all were fed 2.2 kg/d for the remainder of pregnancy. The higher maternal feed allowance from day 25 to 50 of pregnancy increased the densities of total and secondary fibres and the secondary:primary fibre ratio in semitendinosus muscles of their female progeny at 61 d of age postnatally. The densities of secondary and total muscle fibres in semitendinosus muscles of progeny were predicted by maternal weight before treatment and maternal plasma insulin-like growth factor-II during treatment. Maternal pGH treatment from day 25 to day 50 of pregnancy did not alter fibre densities, but increased the cross-sectional area of the semitendinosus muscle; this may be partially explained by increased maternal plasma glucose. Thus, maternal nutrition and pGH treatment during the second quarter of pregnancy in pigs independently alter muscle characteristics in progeny.

An asbestos job exposure matrix to characterize fiber type, length, and relative exposure intensity.

The relationship between asbestos exposure and disease has been well documented, although questions persist as to variation in risk by the type and length of fiber. For a series of jobs with potential asbestos exposure, the primary fiber type (e.g., amosite, anthophylite, chrysotile, crocidolite, or tremolite) and fiber length were identified and the relative exposure intensity was estimated. The resulting job exposure matrix may be useful in epidemiological studies where asbestos is an exposure of interest.

Gender differences in resistance-training-induced myofiber hypertrophy among older adults.

We tested the hypothesis that older men (n = 9, 69 +/- 2 years) would experience greater resistance-training-induced myofiber hypertrophy than older women (n = 5, 66 +/- 1 years) following knee extensor training 3 days per week at 65-80% of one-repetition maximum for 26 weeks. Vastus lateralis biopsies were analyzed for myofiber areas, myosin heavy chain isoform distribution, and levels of mRNA for insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1), IGFR1, and myogenin. Gender x Training interactions (p <.05) indicate greater myofiber hypertrophy for all three primary fiber types (I, IIa, IIx) and enhanced one-repetition maximum strength gain in men compared with women (p <.05). Covarying for serum IGF-1, dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate, or each muscle mRNA did not negate these interactions. In both genders, type IIx myofiber area distribution and myosin heavy chain type IIx distribution decreased with a concomitant increase in type IIa myofiber area distribution (p <.05). In summary, gender differences in load-induced myofiber hypertrophy among older adults cannot be explained by levels of circulating IGF-1 or dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate, or by expression of the myogenic transcripts examined.

Use of Paper-mill Wastes on Agricultural Soils: Is This a Way to Reduce Nitrate Leaching?

The term paper-mill waste is used for different products: de-inked fiber sludge, primary fiber sludge, secondary sludge and mixtures. The aim of this study was to find out if any of these materials can be safely used on agricultural soils to induce net N immobilization of N, and thereby decrease nitrate (NO 3 ) leaching. Chemical characterization showed that secondary sludge derived from biological waste water treatment was a nutrient-rich material low in fiber content, whereas primary and de-inked fiber sludge were high in fiber content and low in nutrient content. Cellulose-C and hemi-cellulose-C amounted to 46% and 36% of the organic C present, respectively, and C/N ratios were around 130 in primary and de-inked fiber sludge. Incubation studies at 8°C over 2 months showed that the decomposability of primary and de-inked fiber sludge in soil was not significantly different. Both showed lower decomposability than secondary sludge. Concentrations of inorganic N in soil declined to very low levels after application of primary and deinked fiber sludge and their capacity for net N immobilization was 4.8-7.2 kg N t - 1 C added at 5°C. However, contents of Cu, Cd and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in de-inked fiber sludge limit its use on arable land. Only primary fiber sludge was found to be suitable as a introgen catch fiber material for use on agricultural soils.

Histochemical study of the sensory endings of muscle spindles in rat longissimus muscles

Most studies concerning the structure and function of muscle spindles have utilized the hind limbs of experimental animals. However, little is known about muscle spindles of the back muscles. The purpose of this study was to investigate the sensory innervation of muscle spindles of the paravertebral muscle in the rat. The subjects were 10 normal male rats. The longissimus muscles were isolated and frozen in cooled isopentane (-160 degrees C), and serial transverse sections were made with a cryostat. Histochemical preparations were then made using nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide tetrazolium reductase (NADH-TR) stain and modified Gomori-trichrome stain. The muscle spindles in each segment were identified microscopically by observing the equatorial and polar regions. NADH-TR staining was employed to distinguish nuclear bag1, nuclear bag2, and nuclear chain intrafusal muscle fibers. A total of 20 spindle poles were surveyed. The mean polar length of intrafusal fibers as well as that of each region (A, B, and C) were measured. NADH-TR staining also demonstrated the terminal sites of sensory fibers along intrafusal fibers. All spindle poles surveyed were innervated by secondary sensory fibers in addition to primary sensory fibers. Eight spindle poles were intermediate type muscle spindles that were innervated by one primary sensory fiber and one secondary sensory fiber. Twelve spindle poles were complex type muscle spindles that were innervated by one primary sensory fiber and multiple secondary sensory fibers. The mean length of the A region was 223.1+/-37.9 microm (n=8) for intermediate type spindles and 493.8+/-157.0 microm (n=12) for complex type spindles. The length of the A region was significantly longer in the complex type spindles than in the intermediate type spindles (p<0.001). The results suggest that the innervations of secondary sensory fibers were well developed in the longissimus muscle spindles in the rat. The morphological features of muscle spindles of the longissimus muscle may represent the structural basis for qualitatively different afferent discharges that relate to the characteristic types of locomotion served by paravertebral muscles.

Proposal of the European Industrial Hemp Association (EIHA) for the Reform of the European Union Flax and Hemp Processing Subsidy

Abstract This proposal for the reform of the flax and hemp processing subsidy by the European Union has been developed in cooperation with a large number of primary processors and Natural Fibre Associations. It tries to further improve the current regulations. The control and bureaucracy expense should be considerably reduced, and more attention should be paid to the different interests of the primary processors and the fibre qualities. At the same time a more secure future will be provided to the short and total fibre producers.

Altered aggregation properties of mutant gamma-crystallins cause inherited cataract.

Protein inclusions are associated with a diverse group of human diseases ranging from localized neurological disorders through to systemic non-neuropathic diseases. Here, we present evidence that the formation of intranuclear inclusions is a key event in cataract formation involving altered gamma-crystallins that are un likely to adopt their native fold. In three different inherited murine cataracts involving this type of gamma-crystallin mutation, large inclusions containing the altered gamma-crystallins were found in the nuclei of the primary lens fibre cells. Their formation preceded not only the first gross morphological changes in the lens, but also the first signs of cataract. The inclusions contained filamentous material that could be stained with the amyloid-detecting dye, Congo red. In vitro, recombinant mutant gammaB-crystallin readily formed amyloid fibrils under physiological buffer conditions, unlike wild-type protein. These data suggest that this type of cataract is caused by a mechanism involving the nuclear targeting and deposition of amyloid-like inclusions. The mutant gamma-crystallins initially disrupt nuclear function, but then this progresses to a full cataract phenotype.

Bmp signaling is required for development of primary lens fiber cells.

We have investigated the role of Bmp signaling in development of the mouse lens using three experimental strategies. First, we have shown that the Bmp ligand inhibitor noggin can suppress the differentiation of primary lens fiber cells in explant culture. Second, we have expressed a dominant-negative form of the type 1 Bmp family receptor Alk6 (Bmpr1b -- Mouse Genome Informatics) in the lens in transgenic mice and shown that an inhibition of primary fiber cell differentiation can be detected at E13.5. Interestingly, the observed inhibition of primary fiber cell development was asymmetrical and appeared only on the nasal side of the lens in the ventral half. Expression of the inhibitory form of Alk6 was driven either by the alpha A-cystallin promoter or the ectoderm enhancer from the Pax6 gene in two different transgenes. These expression units drive transgene expression in distinct patterns that overlap in the equatorial cells of the lens vesicle at E12.5. Despite the distinctions between the transgenes, they caused primary fiber cell differentiation defects that were essentially identical, which implied that the equatorial lens vesicle cells were responding to Bmp signals in permitting primary fiber cells to develop. Importantly, E12.5 equatorial lens vesicle cells showed cell-surface immunoreactivity for bone-morphogenetic protein receptor type 2 and nuclear immunoreactivity for the active, phosphorylated form of the Bmp responsive Smads. This indicated that these cells had the machinery for Bmp signaling and were responding to Bmp signals. We conclude that Bmp signaling is required for primary lens fiber cell differentiation and, given the asymmetry of the differentiation inhibition, that distinct differentiation stimuli may be active in different quadrants of the eye.

Expression of crystallin genes in embryonic and regenerating newt lenses

The spatio-temporal expression of three crystallin genes (alphaA, betaB1 and gamma) in the developing and regenerating lenses of newt was compared by in situ hybridization in lens differentiation in normal development with during regeneration. In normal development, all crystallin transcripts were first detected at the same stage in the posterior region of the lens vesicle (McDevitt's lens development stage V) and continued during lens fiber differentiation of the posterior cells into the primary lens fiber cell differentiation (McDevitt's lens development stage VII-VIII). At later stages, the expression of the three genes was restricted to the secondary lens fibers and gradually became undetectable in primary lens fibers (McDevitt's lens development stage X). The signal for gamma-crystallin was never detected in lens epithelium at any stage, whereas signals for alphaA- and betaB1-crystallin were detected in the lens epithelium at the stage when the primary lens fiber mass was formed. During lens regeneration, signals for the three crystallins were first detected at the same stage at the ventral margin of a regenerating lens vesicle (Sato's lens regeneration stage IV). The expression patterns of three crystallin genes were similar to those in normal development (Sato's lens regeneration stage V-X). The expression pattern of the crystallin genes in normal lens development fundamentally resembles that during lens regeneration, suggesting the absence of unique expression programs of crystallin genes for lens regeneration not found in ontogeny.

Cdk5 regulates cell-matrix and cell-cell adhesion in lens epithelial cells

Cdk5 is a member of the cyclin-dependent kinase family, which is expressed predominantly in terminally differentiated neurons. Lower levels of Cdk5 are also found in a wide variety of cell types, including the lens. Although Cdk5 has been shown to play an important role in neuronal migration and neurite outgrowth, its function in non-neuronal cells is not known. Therefore, this study was undertaken to explore the role of Cdk5 in the lens. Results showed that, within the adult mouse lens, Cdk5 was localized to the cytoplasm, especially along the lateral membranes of differentiating primary fiber cells, which suggests a role in cell-cell adhesion. Staining at the tips of elongating fiber cells was also particularly strong, suggesting a role in cell-matrix adhesion. To examine the possible role of Cdk5 in lens epithelial cell adhesion, we stably transfected N/N1003A rabbit lens epithelial cells with cDNAs for Cdk5 or a dominant-negative mutation, Cdk5-T33. Attachment to a fibronectin matrix, as measured with substrate-coated cell adhesion strips, was increased by Cdk5 overexpression, while an equivalent overexpression of Cdk5-T33 had no effect. Cdk5 also increased the rate of cell attachment and spreading as measured by electric cell-substrate impedance sensing (ECIS). In addition, Cdk5 overexpression decreased cell-cell adhesion as measured by a cell aggregation assay. These findings suggest that Cdk5 plays a role in regulating both cell-matrix and cell-cell interactions in the lens.

The gypsy insulator of Drosophila affects chromatin structure in a directional manner.

Chromatin insulators are thought to regulate gene expression by establishing higher-order domains of chromatin organization, although the specific mechanisms by which these sequences affect enhancer-promoter interactions are not well understood. Here we show that the gypsy insulator of Drosophila can affect chromatin structure. The insulator itself contains several DNase I hypersensitive sites whose occurrence is dependent on the binding of the Suppressor of Hairy-wing [Su(Hw)] protein. The presence of the insulator in the 5' region of the yellow gene increases the accessibility of the DNA to nucleases in the promoter-proximal, but not the promoter-distal, region. This increase in accessibility is not due to alterations in the primary chromatin fiber, because the number and position of the nucleosomes appears to be the same in the presence or absence of the insulator. Binding of the Su(Hw) protein to insulator DNA is not sufficient to induce changes in chromatin accessibility, and two domains of this protein, presumed to be involved in interactions with other insulator components, are essential for this effect. The presence of Modifier of mdg4 [Mod(mdg4)] protein, a second component of the gypsy insulator, is required to induce these alterations in chromatin accessibility. The results suggest that the gypsy insulator affects chromatin structure and offer insights into the mechanisms by which insulators affect enhancer-promoter interactions.

Syndecan-3 and Syndecan-4 Specifically Mark Skeletal Muscle Satellite Cells and Are Implicated in Satellite Cell Maintenance and Muscle Regeneration

Myogenesis in the embryo and the adult mammal consists of a highly organized and regulated sequence of cellular processes to form or repair muscle tissue that include cell proliferation, migration, and differentiation. Data from cell culture and in vivo experiments implicate both FGFs and HGF as critical regulators of these processes. Both factors require heparan sulfate glycosaminoglycans for signaling from their respective receptors. Since syndecans, a family of cell-surface transmembrane heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) are implicated in FGF signaling and skeletal muscle differentiation, we examined the expression of syndecans 1–4 in embryonic, fetal, postnatal, and adult muscle tissue, as well as on primary adult muscle fiber cultures. We show that syndecan-1, -3, and -4 are expressed in developing skeletal muscle tissue and that syndecan-3 and -4 expression is highly restricted in adult skeletal muscle to cells retaining myogenic capacity. These two HSPGs appear to be expressed exclusively and universally on quiescent adult satellite cells in adult skeletal muscle tissue, suggesting a role for HSPGs in satellite cell maintenance or activation. Once activated, all satellite cells maintain expression of syndecan-3 and syndecan-4 for at least 96 h, also implicating these HSPGs in muscle regeneration. Inhibition of HSPG sulfation by treatment of intact myofibers with chlorate results in delayed proliferation and altered MyoD expression, demonstrating that heparan sulfate is required for proper progression of the early satellite cell myogenic program. These data suggest that, in addition to providing potentially useful new markers for satellite cells, syndecan-3 and syndecan-4 may play important regulatory roles in satellite cell maintenance, activation, proliferation, and differentiation during skeletal muscle regeneration.

Water Diffusion Changes in Wallerian Degeneration and Their Dependence on White Matter Architecture

This study investigates water diffusion changes in Wallerian degeneration. We measured indices derived from the diffusion tensor (DT) and T2-weighted signal intensities in the descending motor pathways of patients with small chronic lacunar infarcts of the posterior limb of the internal capsule on one side. We compared these measurements in the healthy and lesioned sides at different levels in the brainstem caudal to the primary lesion. We found that secondary white matter degeneration is revealed by a large reduction in diffusion anisotropy only in regions where fibers are arranged in isolated bundles of parallel fibers, such as in the cerebral peduncle. In regions where the degenerated pathway crosses other tracts, such as in the rostral pons, paradoxically there is almost no change in diffusion anisotropy, but a significant change in the measured orientation of fibers. The trace of the diffusion tensor is moderately increased in all affected regions. This allows one to differentiate secondary and primary fiber loss where the increase in trace is considerably higher. We show that DT-MRI is more sensitive than T2-weighted MRI in detecting Wallerian degeneration. Significant diffusion abnormalities are observed over the entire trajectory of the affected pathway in each patient. This finding suggests that mapping degenerated pathways noninvasively with DT-MRI is feasible. However, the interpretation of water diffusion data is complex and requires a priori information about anatomy and architecture of the pathway under investigation. In particular, our study shows that in regions where fibers cross, existing DT-MRI-based fiber tractography algorithms may lead to erroneous conclusion about brain connectivity.

The changes in cell wall architecture during lignification of bamboo, Phyllostachys aurea Carr.

The cell wall architecture of bamboo at various developmental stages of culm growth was investigated by rapid-freezing and deep-etching (RFDE) electron microscopy. The unlignified primary wall (ULP) was characterized by the narrow spacing between the cellulose microfibrils in fibres, but not in parenchyma cells. The unlignified secondary wall (ULS) largely consisted of dense cellulose microfibrils with narrow spacing or "slit-like" pores. However, such pores are difficult to observe in the lignified secondary wall (LS) of fibres. The cell wall architecture of the delignified secondary wall (DLS) in fibres showed porosity similar to that of ULS. Pores in the middle lamella and secondary walls of ULS in fibres were reduced considerably or disappeared immediately after lignification. However, the pores reappeared following delignification. These findings suggest that deposition of lignin in ULS immediately proceeds in the pores during maturation to LS. Based on RFDE electron microscopic images, the pore sizes of primary and secondary fibre walls were significantly smaller in bamboo than in either Eucalyptus or Pinus, suggesting a denser arrangement of cellulose microfibrils in bamboo fibre walls than in either tree species. The author hypothesizes that the narrow spacing between cellulose microfibrils in bamboo fibres may be one of the reasons for the deposition of less lignin in bamboo than in tree species. This is the first report on the three-dimensional architecture of unlignified and lignified walls in bamboo.