Primary Expenditure Research Articles

Education for Development or Underdevelopment? Guyana´s Educational System and Its Implications for the Third World

Historical Introduction to Guyanese Society Post-1945 Developments in Guyana Primary Education Teacher Education Secondary Education Post-Secondary and Technical Education Expenditure on Education Conclusion Bibliography.

Productive Labour and the School System: Contradictions in the Training of Artisans in Kenya

The issue of productive labour in African school systems raises very different questions from the experience of this in either Russia or China [1]. At first sight, such work seems now to be conspicuously absent from the primary and secondary schools of most countries except Tanzania. Nevertheless, it has begun to be the subject of some considerable debate even in those countries where it does not apparently figure at all in the ordinary school curriculum [2]. The reasons have to do with the wider political economy of many African states in the 1970s, and not least with the widespread phenomenon of educated, unskilled unemployment. It may perhaps therefore be useful to sketch out the major lines of this recent concern, illustrating the argument primarily with data from Kenya. The central focus of this current speculation are the tens of thousands who in a number of countries have espoused some form of self-employment during the last decade. They may be viewed as in some sense the product of the massive and continuing school boom on the one hand and the extremely sluggish growth of wage and salary jobs on the other. As it became clear during the 1960s that African economies were simply not going to be able to offer a form of regular paid employment to the majority of primary and junior secondary school leavers, the social and political consequences of large-scale open unemployment were frequently alluded to as Africa's likeliest long-term disease. Empirical work, however, began to uncover that the school leaver group, which had been feared as the aspiring and potentially disruptive element in African society, had embraced forms of self-employment on a scale unprecedented during the colonial period. While this was considered a favourable omen by agencies and funds intimately concerned with employment creation-notably ILO and the World Bank-this phenomenon of what people began to call 'informal sector' employment raised a set of new questions, many of them bearing directly on the relationship between self-employment and the conventional academic school system. The one which concerns productive labour most closely was that very considerable numbers of young people had gained an artisan skill, even though their seven to eleven years of schooling had been completely devoid of prevocational bias, let alone any practical work experience. There seems something of a paradox in this; for on the one hand planners wished to justify the ever increasing costs of primary schooling (during 1974 alone two of the most education-conscious states-Kenya and Nigeria-are pledged to make their primary expenditures still higher, by

AIBS at the Crossroads-History and Future for U. S. Biology

It is useful from time to time to assess the productivity and accomplishments of organizations. The American Institute of Biological Sciences is no exception. The accomplishments of any society result from the free service to it by its members plus the additional assistance it is able to attract by judicious expenditure of its resources. In most scientific societies, by far the greatest input is free. The major output is the journal, the authorship of which is unremunerated effort by the members. Publication costs are even paid by dues which represent the primary expenditure. The AIBS differs from the sub-

Plan for utilizing the water resources of the upper Kuban’

1. Development of the plan for the power utilization of the Upper Kuban’, taking into account the interests of irrigation, industry, and communal-domestic water supply, brought out the basic assumptions of the flow regulation and utilization regimen, and a plan for locating regulating reservoirs, complying insufficient measure with the interests of all the principal participation of a complicated water economy complex. The flood and sprinkler irrigation systems of the Upper Kuban’ water supply regimen, with flow regulation at the head of the systems and counter-regulation reservoirs within the systems, permits a sharp reduction of primary expenditures, establishing the prerequisites for the fullest and most economic utilization of the water resources, and also for their distribution over the greatest area, depending on the merging of economic and meteorologic conditions in each region. 2. The hydropower resources of the Upper Kuban’ basin are 17.4 billion kWh/yr, from which 7–9 billion kWh, which are economically dependent on the structure of the prospective thermal power balance, may be attributed to the European part of the country. Utilization of the hydropower resources of the Upper Kuban’ may be expediently developed, in the first stage, into two basic cascades-the Zelenchuk and Upper Kuban’-with their consolidation below the North Jurassic depression into one cascade, based on the development of the Kuban’-Kalaussk hydroelectric station now under construction.

The Development of the Pump-Priming Theory

IN ANTICIPATION of the problems that the end of a major war brings, much consideration is being given to postwar planning. A public works program, whether planned or unplanned, will surely be a part of any policy aimed at postwar economic stabilization. While we are still in the planning stage, a careful examination of the development of the public works theory should be of more than usual interest. The primary purpose, therefore, of this article is to give a rather exhaustive history of the development of this particular theory of public works policy. The pump-priming theory has, in general, passed through three stages. The first stage was characterized by a recognition that public expenditures tend to stimulate private industry and that this stimulus, once started, spreads from industry to industry. There was no careful analysis, however, of just how and to what extent public works expenditure could be expected to stimulate private industry. The second stage, beginning about I930, was characterized by careful attempts to describe the process of secondary expansion initiated in private industry and, under certain stated assumptions, to measure the magnitude of this expansion. During the last few years there has been a growing recognition that the principle of secondary effects explains only how public works expenditure may be employed to ''pump private industry up to a certain level. To maintain the higher level without continuing the primary expenditure, favorable tertiary effects-i.e., induced expansion in private industry in addition to the secondary effects-are necessary.