Preventing Reading Failure Research Articles

Early identification and intervention to prevent reading failure: A response to intervention (RTI) initiative

This article describes a Response to Intervention (RTI) model of early identification and intervention to prevent reading failure. A simple screening system to alert teachers to children who may not have some of the prerequisite skills necessary for reading and a whole class intervention system will be described. The success of these initiatives was measured systematically, and the incidence of reading difficulties was reduced to 1.5% in the children who had English as a first language and in children who had English as an additional language. The article also examines the relative influence of students’ first language on learning to read in English and the benefits of bilingualism.

Preventing Reading Failure for First-Grade Students in an Urban School

This study sought to examine the effectiveness of Reading RACES (RR), a computer program designed to deliver a repeated reading intervention with culturally relevant passages. Specifically, this study examined the effects of RR on the oral reading fluency (ORF) and comprehension gains for first-grade learners in an urban setting and whether these gains would generalize to novel, generic passages. Five first-grade African American students at risk for reading failure were selected to participate in this study. Results indicated a functional relation between the use of RR and student gains in ORF and comprehension. All students who participated in this study demonstrated moderate to substantial gains on their ORF and comprehension on practiced passages. In addition, the data showed reading skills generalized to novel passages and maintained even 1 month following intervention. These findings extend the previous research base for RR. Limitations and future implications will be discussed.

Is More Screening Better? The Relationship Between Frequent Screening, Accurate Decisions, and Reading Proficiency

Screening is necessary to detect risk and prevent reading failure. Yet the amount of screening that commonly occurs in U.S. schools may undermine its value, creating more error in decision making and lost instructional opportunity. This 2-year longitudinal study examined the decision accuracy associated with collecting concurrent reading screening measures and in collecting fall and winter screening measures for all students in Grade 3 in 4 schools in a midwestern district (N = 428) in Year 1. This study also categorized children by proficiency on the Year 1 test and by the amount of screening they received in Year 1 in 7 schools in the district (N = 656) and then examined performance on the Year 2 test to examine screening benefit. Analyses included multiple regression, classification agreement, and multilevel modeling. Results found no added accuracy in using more than one screening in the fall and no added accuracy in using both fall and winter screening data. Students experienced on average a 1.57-point gain on the year-end test for each screening to which they were exposed. Follow-up analyses found benefit for the most at-risk students and little benefit of screening for proficient students.

Preventing Early Reading Failure

AbstractAcross the pendulum‐like changes in beginning reading instruction over the past 30 years, three interrelated ideas emerge as the key to preventing reading failure in kindergarten and first grade: (1) an interesting, carefully‐leveled book curriculum; (2) a leveled phonics curriculum; and (3) a well‐trained teacher who knows how to integrate guided reading and phonics to meet the changing needs of struggling readers. A practicum (i.e., teachers tutoring one‐on‐one under the supervision of an expert coach) is deemed the best way to develop needed teacher expertise. Although investing in teacher knowledge and skill presents challenges (e.g., finding time, finding a coach, funding the training), it represents a school's best chance of breaking the cycle of early reading failure.

Identifying Preschool Children for Higher Tiers of Language and Early Literacy Instruction Within a Response to Intervention Framework

Response to Intervention (RTI) or Multi-Tiered Systems of Support (MTSS) is beginning to be implemented in preschool programs to improve outcomes and to reduce the need for special education services. The proportions of children in programs identified as struggling learners through universal screening have important implications for the feasibility of these approaches as well as for the way programs might allocate resources and staff implementing tiered models of intervention. The expected proportions of children who might be identified for higher tiers of instructional support in pre-kindergarten settings are relatively unknown. The proportions of children who would have been identified for higher tiers of instructional language/literacy support when using three different universal screening measures are described. Participants were 659 children participating in the Center for Response to Intervention in Early Childhood (CRTIEC) Tier 1 Study. Results indicated that the proportions of children at Tier 2 and Tier 3 performance levels were higher for children in low-income eligibility programs and varied by program-level characteristics including numbers of English language learners and children with special needs, as well as the universal screening measure used. Implications of these findings suggest the importance of increased focus on early literacy and language in Tier 1 instruction in programs serving high proportions of children at risk as a means of preventing reading failure in future years.

A Randomized Trial of a Computer-Assisted Tutoring Program Targeting Letter-Sound Expression

.Given that many schools have limited resources and a high proportion of students who present with deficits in early literacy skills, supports aimed at preventing reading failure must be simple and efficient and generate meaningful changes in student learning. We used a randomized group design with a wait-list control to extend the work of Volpe, Burns, DuBois, and Zaslofsky (2011), who found a computer-assisted tutoring program designed to teach young children letter sounds using incremental rehearsal to be an efficient and acceptable intervention for students who were slow to respond to class-wide early literacy intervention. In our study, a total of 30 kindergarten and first-grade students were randomly assigned to either 2 weeks of computer-aided tutoring or a wait-list control group. The effects of the intervention were investigated using multiple-level modeling over four assessment periods (pretreatment, 1 week of intervention, 2 weeks of intervention, and 1-week follow-up). Results were consistent across dependent measures, with rates of growth and follow-up scores significantly higher for the intervention group as compared with the control group. Given that these skills were enhanced in an efficient manner and maintained for at least 1 week, the computer-assisted tutoring intervention appears to be an appropriate support for rapidly improving early skill deficits related to letter-sound knowledge and decoding.

Integrating Classwide Early Literacy Intervention and Behavioral Supports

Kindergarten Peer Assisted Learning Strategies and directly teaching and reinforcing behavioral expectations are empirically supported interventions for building early literacy skills and increasing on-task behavior, respectively. Previous research has not investigated the application of both academic and behavior interventions simultaneously to prevent reading failure. The purpose of this study was to examine the effectiveness of KPALS with and without a classroom management strategy (CMS) consisting of posting and teaching classroom expectations and reinforcing them via a token economy for 20 kindergarten students from an urban elementary school in the northeastern United States. Results indicated an increase in the level of active engagement and teacher-directed instruction with the implementation of KPALS and CMS. Moreover, a clear improvement in students’ academic skills occurred with the addition of the CMS. Future research and practical implications are discussed.

Building Schoolwide Capacity for Preventing Reading Failure

Teachers are constantly assessing their students, whether it is formally or informally. They use screening, diagnostic, and outcome assessments to determine areas of concern and then monitor the progress of the students based on the interventions given. They are called upon to intervene with prevention in mind, helping students catch up as they begin to fall behind. The Response to Intervention model offers three tiers of service for students. Professionals should question the interventions they deliver in response to their students' needs.This Literacy Leaders column offers a series of questions for reflection that may guide teachers or administrators in determining the effectiveness of applied interventions. Also offered is a suggested model for literacy leaders to follow that will help align what interventions and progress monitoring tools are available at the individual campus and district level.يقيّم المعلمون طلابهم باستمرار سواء أكان رسميا أو غير رسمي ويستخدمون تقييمات باختلاف أنواعها بما فيها الرشح والفحص والنتائج كي يحددوا مجالات الاهتمام وثمة يراقبون تقدّم الطلاب على أساس التدخلات المفترضة وهي مستخدمة لتتدخل من أجل الوقاية وهذا يساعد الطلاب في ملاحقة الدرس عند تأخّرهم به. إذ يقدم نموذج استجابة للتدخل ثلاث مراحل الخدمة للطلاب. وينبغي على المحترفين أن يتأملوا التدخلات التي يستخدمونها لوفاء بحاجات الطلاب.ويقدّم عمود قادة التعلم هذا سلسلة الأسئلة للتأمل التي قد توجّه معلمين أو مديرين نحو تحديد فعالية التدخلات المنطبقة وكذلك يقدّم نموذجاً مقترحاً لقادة التعلم ليتبعوه سيساعد في تصفيف أدوات التدخّل والتقدّم المتاحة على مستويّ الجامعة والمحافظة.教师持续不断地评估他们的学生，无论是正式的或非正式的评估。他们使用筛检式评估、诊断式评估和结果评估以测定所关注的领域，然后根据所给予的一些干预去监察学生的进度。当学生的学习出现落后时，为了制止问题恶化，教师被要求予以干预，以帮助学生迎头赶上。「对干预的反应」这模型提供三层给予学生的服务。教育专业人员应就他们对学生的需要作出的回应而质疑他们所提供的干预的效能。本期的《读写教学领导者》专栏提供一系列的反思问题，指导教师或行政人员如何确定所应用的干预的效能；亦建议一个模型给读写教育领导者遵循，帮助他们在各自的校园和地区层面上，调准可利用的干预和监察其进度的工具的一致性。Les enseignants évaluent continuellement leurs élèves, que ce soit de façon formelle ou informelle. Ils scrutent, diagnostiquent, et mesurent les effets pour identifier les secteurs préoccupants, puis pilotent la progression des élèves à partir de ces données. Ils sont appelés pour intervenir en termes de prévention, pour aider à rattraper les élèves qui commencent à prendre du retard. Le modèle Réponse à l'intervention offre aux élèves une aide en trois parties. Les professionnels devraient s'interroger sur les interventions qu'ils effectuent pour répondre aux besoins des élèves.La rubrique Pilotes en littératie offre à la réflexion une série de questions susceptibles d'aider les enseignants ou les responsables administratifs à déterminer l'efficacité des interventions qu'ils réalisent. Elle offre également un modèle à suivre conseillé aux pilotes en littératie qui les aidera à organiser les interventions avec les outils de pilotage des progressions disponibles au niveau local et régional.Учителя постоянно оценивают учеников – на формальном и неформальном уровне. Они делают срезы и диагностику, по их результатам определяют моменты, вызывающие беспокойство, осуществляют учебное вмешательство, а затем проверяют, насколько оно помогло. Цель оценивания в этом случае – вовремя вмешаться, чтобы предотвратить необратимое отставание учащихся. Модель Ответ на вмешательство предлагает три уровня поддержки учеников. Профессионалы должны уметь оценить то вмешательство, которые они осуществляют для помощи учащимся.В этой рубрике обсуждается ряд значимых вопросов, которые могут помочь учителям и руководителям образовательных учреждений в определении эффективности применяемых вмешательств. Кроме того, в данном выпуске предлагается модель, которая поможет руководителям и учителям определить, какие формы вмешательства и инструменты контроля можно получить в местном университете или образовательном округе.Los maestros están constantemente evaluando a sus estudiantes, ya sea formal o informalmente. Usan evaluaciones de filtración, de diagnosis y de resultados para determinar las áreas que les incumben y entonces supervisan su progreso basado en la intervención proveída. Se les pide que intervengan con la intensión de prevenir, ayudando a los estudiantes a ponerse al día cuando empiezan a retrasarse. El modelo de Respuesta a la Intervención ofrece tres niveles de servicio a los estudiantes. Los profesionales deben cuestionar las intervenciones que hacen como resultado de las necesidades de los estudiantes.Esta columna de Líderes de Alfabetización ofrece una serie de preguntas de reflexión que podrían guiar a los maestros o administradores determinar si las intervenciones aplicadas han sido efectivas. También se ofrece una sugerencia de un modelo que los líderes de alfabetización pueden seguir para ayudarles a emparejar los instrumentos de intervención y supervisión que tengan disponibles al nivel de sus recintos individuales y del distrito.

Preparing Teachers to Support Struggling First-Grade Readers

The purpose of this report is to provide education professors teaching early literacy methods courses with information for beginning teachers to support struggling first-grade readers. This analysis identifies the specific word structures children are expected to know by the end of first grade, and shows the actual learning rates of these sound-to-letter correspondences by students who are not achieving on grade level. The evidence presented herein shows the need for preservice teachers to fully understand how to assess and enhance phonemic awareness in young children, a building block for decoding, and to identify and concentrate on teaching alphabetic relations as part of the early literacy curriculum. Given the increasing numbers of students with diverse ethnic/language backgrounds and special needs in mainstream early childhood and primary grade settings, teacher education programs need to provide preservice teachers with the knowledge and skills required to meet the instructional needs of children from these populations. Education professors have a great responsibility to ensure that preservice teachers have the necessary background knowledge to prevent reading failure for young children struggling with learning sound-to-letter correspondences. It is important that this aspect of early reading instruction be clearly explained and promoted with preservice teachers receiving certification in teaching children in Grades K–3.

Teaching Struggling Readers Who Are Native Spanish Speakers: What Do We Know?

The purpose of this article is to share what we have learned from a series of 4 scientific studies about preventing reading failure through early intervention with native Spanish-speaking students who are struggling readers. The goal is to provide guidance to practitioners about effective practices for working with native Spanish-speaking children who are struggling to become readers using evidence rather than conjecture and opinion. First, the method and findings are summarized from each of 4 scientific studies (2 English, 2 Spanish) examining supplemental reading intervention that was provided in addition to core reading instruction in first grade. Second, the supplemental interventions are detailed. Next, aspects of instruction that appear to generalize from what we know about preventing reading failure among native English speakers are discussed. Last, the types of adjustments made to this instruction in order to accommodate the needs of English language learners are examined. Outcomes confirm that native Spanish-speaking children benefited from explicit, systematic instruction that shared many of the same elements that have been proven to be effective with native English speakers. Further, English as a second language teaching techniques (i.e., use of concrete gestures and visual aids, consistent and repeated routines, and use of repeated phrases and consistent language) benefited native Spanish speakers who were struggling to learn to read in English. However, little transfer of knowledge from one language to another was detected.

Using Early Literacy Monitoring to Prevent Reading Failure

MOST CHILDREN who do not to during the primary grades will probably never to well. Children who reach the end of third grade with low literacy skills typically have less access to the regular curriculum, require long-term support, and fall further behind their peers in literacy achievement and curricular knowledge. The negative ramifications of low literacy skills are pervasive and well documented--poor self-esteem, low motivation, behavioral difficulties, academic underachievement, and, ultimately, reduced occupational and economic status. However, these negative trajectories can be altered. Children experiencing reading difficulties can be identified early and, with appropriate early intervention during the primary grades, can to read. (1) Reading is a complex process, and that complexity is reflected in the range of philosophies, pedagogies, curricula, and programs available to guide early elementary reading instruction. It is little wonder, given the myriad of options available and the constraints imposed by limited resources and students' diverse skills, that a crucial question for practitioners and researchers alike is how best to ensure that children do to early and well. The Committee on the Prevention of Reading Difficulties in Young Children suggests a three-tier framework to address that question: 1) provide excellent classroom literacy instruction for all children, 2) further reduce literacy failure by allocating supplementary resources and offering enhanced learning opportunities to at-risk children, and 3) ameliorate the effects of established reading difficulties by providing intensive interventions. Efforts to translate research into practice always generate additional questions, and early literacy is no exception. As with most issues in education, responses to concerns about early literacy programming must take into account the needs of multiple stakeholders--students, parents, teachers, and administrators--while at the same time respecting empirical evidence of what constitutes effective practice. Research strongly supports both the vital role of early identification in the prevention of reading difficulties and the urgent need to teach children to during the first few years of school so that they can read to learn in grade 3 and beyond. These issues were the driving force behind a yearlong process in which a group of researchers from the Canadian Research Institute for Social Policy consulted with the New Brunswick Department of Education and five district school boards. The consultation evolved into a five-year pilot program aimed at lowering the rate of reading failure at the K-2 level. The pilot program involves implementing a school-based, continuous monitoring system during those crucial years to assist teachers in the early identification of children who encounter difficulty in their literacy development. This early literacy monitoring program, currently in its third year of data collection, is being piloted in 20 public schools and six federal First Nations schools. It responds to needs expressed by teachers, department officials, and school administrators and provides a mechanism for keeping parents apprised of their children's progress. IDENTIFYING WHAT WE NEED Throughout the first year of our five-year program, two members of our project team traveled frequently to participating schools and district offices to gather input from teachers, reading specialists, program coordinators, and school administrators. After each round of meetings, the entire research team, including researchers, programmers, analysts, early reading consultants, and support staff, would review partner specifications in order to design the components of the monitoring program. At each stage, return visits to districts and schools sought further input that the research team would again take into account, a process that continued over the course of the year until we had a structure in place that met the expectations of all partners. …

English Reading Effects of Small‐Group Intensive Intervention in Spanish for K–1 English Learners

In this article we report small, but statistically significant, effects of brief supplemental instruction on English reading by Spanish‐speaking kindergartners (N = 37) who performed poorly on a bilingual battery of phonological‐processing tasks. Intervention design was compatible with the Reading First initiative and with research on use of multitiered intervention strategies for preventing reading failure among young monolingual students (e.g., L. S. Fuchs & Vaughn, 2003). We describe a Core Intervention Model (CIM) comprised of specific instructional behaviors that teachers might easily learn and employ regardless of curriculum, and discuss implications of our findings for building multitiered preventative instruction for young English learners.

Evaluating the Impact of a Prevention-Based Model of Reading on Children Who Are At Risk

Large numbers of students are not benefiting from current reading curricula and practices. However, despite the presence of a scientifically validated basis for teaching reading, the nuances of exactly how to translate beginning reading research into day-to-day classroom practice remain to be validated. In this article, beginning literacy outcomes for the instructional practices employed in Project PRIDE are presented. Project PRIDE is a model for preventing reading failure that employs a combination of systematic, explicit instruction in phonemic awareness and phonics with a total classroom reading program; a multitiered teaching approach; data-based decision making; and professional development that includes ongoing, on-site coaching. The effects of 2 years of PRIDE implementation in three inner-city schools in a medium-sized midwestern city are presented, and the implications of these findings for current practice and future research are discussed.

The Critical Role of Phonological and Phonemic Awareness in Reading Success: A Model for Early Literacy in Rural Schools

Early and continuous monitoring of emerging reading skills is a major component of preventing reading failure as well as an effective approach to lowering the incidence of special education referrals. In this article, seminal and contemporary research pertinent to the development of reading skills is highlighted and the critical relationship of phonological processing ability to the understanding of letter-sound associations is outlined. The findings regarding the long-term consequences of early reading difficulties are discussed and the benefits of a diagnostic/prescriptive approach to instruction are examined. The developmental sequence of phonological awareness skills is presented along with a detailed discussion of screening and assessment measures that can be used to guide reading instruction in pre-kindergarten through the second grade.

Research on the Prevention of Reading Problems: Are Kindergarten and First Grade Teachers Listening?

Reading problems can be prevented, or at least minimized, in a reading program that includes explicit instruction in phonemic awareness, word identification skills leading to accurate, fluent reading, and comprehension. This study reports the results of a survey of 549 kindergarten and first grade teachers designed to examine teacher attitudes toward, and knowledge of, beginning reading practices that have been shown to prevent reading failure. The results indicate that for children at risk, teachers display more positive attitudes toward explicit reading approaches that embody the teaching of phonemic awareness and phonics. The implications of these results for teacher training and future research are discussed.

Monitoring the Academic Progress of Children Who Are Unresponsive to Generally Effective Early Reading Intervention

During the past 20 years, researchers have identified core deficits of struggling readers and developed treatments that prevent reading failure. However, whereas progress has been made toward designing generally effective reading interventions, not all children respond to these treatments. Such students have been dubbed "nonresponders," and are the current focus of a growing body of research. Because nonresponsiveness to generally effective instruction is a relatively new issue, researchers have yet to agree on how to identify nonresponders. The purpose of this article is to propose a "dual-discrepancy" approach to identifying such children. A rationale for such an approach is given. Then, curriculum-based measurement is suggested as an effective tool for detecting dual discrepancies. An example is provided from an ongoing program of research that uses the dual-discrepancy approach to identify nonresponders.

An evaluation of structured teaching programmes for reading with Year 1 children

Background:With a growing emphasis on early intervention to prevent reading failure, there is a need to evaluate published reading programmes for their effectiveness, particularly in complementing work in the literacy hour.Aims:A small-scale project was set up to evaluate the effectiveness of two structured reading programmes when used with Year 1 children.Samples:23 Year 1 children in four British primary schools were nominated by their teachers as showing slow progress in developing reading skills. Pre-testing established poor or non-existent phonological awareness and whole-word reading skills, but a knowledge of vocabulary which was normal for their age.Methods:Each group received up to 12 hours’ small-group teaching. Two groups used an approach which concentrated on phonological awareness; the other two groups used a programme which concentrated on teaching children rules for pronunciation of letters.Results:Pre- and post-testing did not indicate a significant difference between the groups in terms of gains in scores; but there was a highly significant difference overall between pre- and post-scores.Comments:This confirms the impact of regular small-group teaching in Year 1 in addressing difficulty in developing reading skill.

Preventing Reading Failure: Phonological Awareness Assessment and Instruction

The article addresses translating phonological awareness research for classroom reading instruction. It presents a practical overview of phonological awareness development and its relationship to beginning reading, including a synopsis of findings of recent research and an explanation of the development of phonological skills. It presents methods for formal and informal assessment of children's phonological awareness and describes strategies for classroom-based instruction in phonological skills with emergent readers.

The Prevention of Reading Difficulties

The purpose of this article is to provide practical advice about methods to prevent reading failure that is grounded in the new knowledge we have acquired about reading and learning to read over the past 2 decades. Recent research on reading is used to establish a set of facts about reading and reading growth that is relevant to establishing instructional objectives and methods for the prevention of reading difficulties. Within the context of our current understanding of the reasons many children find it difficult to learn to read, the article also identifies the instructional conditions that need to be in place to prevent the development of reading difficulties in all but a very small proportion of children. The article concludes with a discussion of issues and procedures for the early identification of children who are likely to experience difficulties learning to read.

Effects of a Multicomponent Literacy Program and of Supplemental Phonological Sessions on At-Risk Kindergartners

In this study, a multicomponent literacy program for kindergarten classrooms was developed, implemented and its impact evaluated from the perspective of preventing reading failure and combining the approaches of emergent literacy and phonological awareness. The utility of adding phonological awareness sessions to the program was also assessed. Six classes composed of French-speaking children and located in a low SES area participated in the study, which included a comparison group. At the end of kindergarten, a significant treatment effect was found on Invented Spelling, Phonological Awareness and Reading Orientation. No significant effects on reading scores in Grade 1 were detected. Phonological sessions did not add to the treatment effect on phonological measures and reading scores. The findings confirm the benefits of emergent literacy programs with at-risk kindergartners and the need to pursue further research into strategies to improve the prevention of school failure.