Prevalence Of Waterborne Diseases Research Articles

A Novel Thermoplasmonic Paint with Titanium Nitride Nanoparticles

Several studies have reported the photothermal heating of colloidal nanoparticles due to plasmon-enhanced light absorption, and Titanium Nitride has emerged as a promising nanomaterial for the practical application of this phenomenon. Here, we developed a novel paint that is infused with Titanium Nitride nanoparticles. Varying concentrations of this paint were applied to copper plates and tested under natural light. Substantial heating was observed under both high-grade and low-grade light for higher concentrations. The uses of this source of heat extend to long-term solutions for reducing the prevalence of waterborne diseases in remote, rural settings via pasteurization.

Climate Change Impacts on Rice Cultivation: A Comparative Study of the Tonle Sap and Mekong River

Climate change is unequivocal. Farmers are increasingly vulnerable to floods and drought. In this article, the negative impact of climate hazards on rice cultivation in the Tonle Sap and Mekong River influenced by climatic variability between 1994 and 2018 are analyzed. A cohort of 536 households from four Cambodian districts participated in household surveys designed to consider how various vulnerability factors interacted across this time series. It was found that: (i) The major climate hazards affecting rice production between 1994 and 2018 were frequent and extreme flood and drought events caused by rainfall variability; (ii) In 2018, extreme flood and drought occurred in the same rice cultivation cycle. The impact caused by each hazard across each region were similar; (iii) An empirical model was used to demonstrate that drought events tend to limit access to irrigation, impact rice production, and result in an increased prevalence of water-borne diseases. Flood events cause reduced rice production, damage to housing, and impede children from accessing education. The impact of drought events on rice production was found to be more severe than flood events; however, each climatic hazard caused physical, economic, social, and environmental vulnerabilities. It is recommended that sufficient human and financial resources are distributed to local authorities to implement adaptation measures that prepare rice farmers for flood and drought events and promote equitable access to water resources.

Trends of potential waterborne diseases at different health facilities in Bamboutos Division, West Region, Cameroon: a retrospective appraisal of routine data from 2013 to 2017.

Many Cameroonian cities lack access to potable drinking water where populations rely on alternative water sources of doubtful quality. This study aimed at describing the trends and patterns of waterborne diseases (WBDs) reported in some health facilities in Bamboutos Division between 2013 and 2017 as baseline data towards understanding the profile of WBDs in this area. A retrospective review of clinical data kept on patients who visited the main health facilities in Bamboutos Division from January 2013 to December 2017 was conducted. Overall, 39.1% (n = 8,124) of total patients were positive for at least one WBD. Categories of WBDs were dysenteries (18.6%), gastroenteritis (4.2%), viral hepatitis (0.2%) and typhoid was the most preponderant (24.4%). The most affected age groups were those above 24 years but significant differences were observed only in 2013 and 2017. Distribution of potential WBDs was locality dependent. The highest prevalence of typhoid fever was recorded in Bameboro (35.4%), dysenteries in Bamedjinda (20.4%) and gastroenteritis (17.3%) in Bamekoumbou. The study shows very high overall prevalence of WBDs in some localities which could be considered as 'hotspots' of WBDs in Bamboutos. This suggests the urgent need for setting up measures to tackle the challenges of potable drinking water supply.

Prevalence of water-borne diseases in western India: dependency on the quality of potable water and personal hygiene practices

Abstract Unlike urban and semi-urban settlements where the potable water is supplied through a water treatment plant and a distribution network, in rural low-income settings, the provision of the water treatment plant for all villages is not feasible for a developing country like India. The most affordable and reliable way to provide clean drinking water is treatment at the consumer end. This research is aimed to assess occurrence of water-borne diseases based on personal hygiene and quality of drinking water source. Of the households, 4,237 in 15 selected villages were surveyed for personal hygiene using a questionnaire. Water samples were collected from all major water sources in the villages and analyzed for chemical and bacteriological properties. For water and personal hygiene, quality indices were calculated, and a mathematical model was developed using multiple linear regression analysis. The regression concluded that personal hygiene has a more significant effect on the occurrence of water-borne diseases than the quality of water source in the study area. Personal hygiene is one of the health factors neglected by the people specifically in rural India. Therefore, India needs to run campaigns like Swachh Bharat Abhiyaan (Clean India Mission), which mainly aimed to reduce open defecation, to promote personal hygiene and to reduce the prevalence of water-borne diseases.

Geospatial analysis of health risks and solid waste management behaviour

ABSTRACT The lack of proper waste management behaviour creates environmental debasement and induces health risks. This study employs primary survey data collected in 2016 to investigate the association between health risks and improper waste management behaviour by households in three locations of Rupandehi District, Nepal. The health risk is measured by a series of water-related symptoms such as Diarrhea, Jaundice, Typhoid Fever, Worms, and Cholera. This paper’s novel contribution is that we identify the spatial nature of the prevalence of waterborne diseases and related factors such as solid waste management behaviour, hygiene infrastructure and personal cleanliness, and socio-economic status of the households. We use a spatial autoregressive model under the negative binomial family, and the result indicates a significant spatial autocorrelation of waterborne diseases. Moreover, we find the significant effect of improper waste management practices on waterborne diseases. The result is consistent even after various robustness and falsification tests. The findings from this study indicate the acute need to raise awareness concerning the malicious effect of improper waste management and the urge to provide wider access to waste management services.

Bacteriological and Physicochemical Quality of Drinking Water in Adis Kidame Town, Northwest Ethiopia.

Drinking water pollution and the resulting waterborne diseases have been among the major public health burden in low-income countries such as Ethiopia. A high prevalence of waterborne diseases, up to 65%, has been reported in Adis Kidame Town (Ethiopia). Moreover, there have been poor waste disposal practices in this town. Thus, this study aimed to assess bacteriological and physicochemical drinking water quality in Adis Kidame Town to get insight into any potential health risks due to waterborne diseases. A total of 90 water samples were analyzed for enumeration of coliform bacteria and basic physicochemical parameters. In this study, total and faecal coliform counts (CFU/100 ml) ranged from 0 to 23 and 0 to 18, respectively. In all cases, 89 and 77% of the water samples in terms of total and faecal coliforms, respectively, did not comply with WHO guidelines. The highest level of coliforms was found in drinking water samples from households' containers and taps, where 100% and 90% of samples were tested positive for total and faecal coliforms, respectively. Among the physicochemical parameters recorded, only temperature and residual chlorine did not comply with WHO guidelines. Temperature values in all samples ranged from 20 to 28°C, while the values of residual chlorine were below the recommended range in the 56.7% of water samples from the reservoir and almost in all (96.7%) water samples from the taps and households' containers. High coliform count in the water system demands proper chlorination, regular inspection of the distribution line, and good hygienic practices to improve the microbiological quality of drinking water in Adis Kidame Town.

Bacteriological and Physicochemical Quality of Drinking Water in Wegeda Town, Northwest Ethiopia.

Waterborne diseases continue to challenge communities in low-income countries like Ethiopia. Clinical information in Wegeda town showed that the prevalence of waterborne diseases was 58%. This study aimed to evaluate bacteriological and physicochemical drinking water quality in Wegeda town. This study will add valuable scientific data for future intervention. Water samples from protected and unprotected springs, hand-dug well, taps, and households' containers were collected from November 2018 to June 2019 for bacteriological and physicochemical analyses. Besides, information about the potential risk factors was collected using a structured questionnaire. A total of 120 water samples were collected and analyzed for total and fecal coliform counts using the multiple tube fermentation method (MPN). The presence of Escherichia coli was also checked from fecal coliform positive samples collected from households' containers. Selected physicochemical parameters were also determined using the standard methods. In all cases, the median values of total and fecal coliform counts ranged from 5 to 27 and 2 to 13 MPN/100 ml, respectively. Accordingly, all of the drinking water samples did not comply with the standards. Coliforms were significantly higher in the households' containers than in the sources (p < 0.05) and also significantly varied by water sources. The highest and lowest coliform counts were recorded in unprotected spring and taps, respectively. Besides, 18.33% of water samples collected from households' containers were tested positive for E. coli. Regarding physicochemical parameters, most values were within the acceptable limit values recommended by the WHO. However, water samples from unprotected spring and hand-dug well did not satisfy the turbidity limit value set by the WHO. Drinking water systems in Wegeda town were likely contaminated with pathogenic bacteria likely due to poor protection and sanitation practices. Providing the community with potable water, toilets, domestic and animal waste disposal systems, and intensive health education and sanitation practices for the community are highly recommended.

Catchment scale assessment of pollution threats to water quality in relation to prevalence of water-borne diseases in some communities in Omu-Aran, Nigeria

Water quality assessment, especially in relation to prevalent waterborne diseases is necessary to ensure that clean and safe drinking water is delivered and sustained to reduce water-borne disease and other public health issues that are associated with the use of unsafe water. Little has been documented about the relationship between water quality and prevalence of waterborne diseases in Omu-Aran, Nigeria. In this wise, eighteen (18) water samples were collected from the available drinking water sources in the three densely populated communities in the study area, Ifaja, Ihaiye and Aran. The microbiological analysis of the water samples was performed by the determination of total coliform, according to the modified methods while the physicochemical parameters were determined by Standard Methods (APHA, 2005). Questionnaires were administered to 100 respondents in the selected communities to elicit information on water sourcing, collection, storage, treatment and prevalence of waterborne diseases treatment. Eighteen (18) water quality parameters cutting across physico-chemical and biological traits were investigated. All parameters were found to be within the WHO limit except microbial parameter (coliform count). The contamination risk from the household activity assessment were found to be severe for water source and water storage while it is moderate for water collection and water treatment and hygiene practices. The prevalence of common waterborne diseases are 9%, 35% and 56% for cholera, typhoid and Diarrhea respectively. The correlation coefficient between microbial parameter and prevalence waterborne diseases are 0.02, -0.5 and 0.86 for cholera, typhoid and cholera respectively. This is indicative of the water quality potential to be inherently laddened with waterborne diseases.

Physico-Chemical and Bacteriological Characteristics of Hand-Dug Wells and Boreholes Water Quality of the Vina Division, Cameroon

Background: Limited access to safe drinking water and lack of information on water quality in the sub-urban and rural regions of Cameroon has contributed to regular outbreaks of diarrheal diseases. Objectives: The aim of this study was to assess the bacteriological quality of drinking water in the Vina division. Methods: A total of 193 water samples were collected from unprotected boreholes, unprotected wells and unprotected clay pots and analyzed physico-chemically including pH, turbidity, total dissolved solid, conductivity and microbiologically such as enumeration of <i>Enterococcus sp.</i>, <i>Escherichia coli</i>, <i>Salmonella sp.</i> and <i>Vibrio</i> sp using standard methods. This study revealed that safe status of the groundwater sources in the Vina division is very poor, considering the high levels of <i>E.coli</i>, <i>Enterococcus</i> sp. and the presence of enter pathogens microorganism such as <i>Vibrio</i> sp., <i>Salmonella</i> sp. and <i>Shigella</i> sp. Representative isolates (26) based on biochemical profile were selected for antibio resistance profile. All selected bacteria exhibited multiple antibiotic resistance at least for five antibiotics including ampicillin, amoxicillin + Clavulanic acid, amoxicillin, penicillin, erythromycin. Conclusion: This study suggests that drinking water available in Vina division of Cameroon lead to a substantial risk to public health. It is therefore necessary to developed strategies for protection of areas around drinking water supplies site. Further studies are therefore needed to assess the prevalence of water borne diseases in Vina division.

Waterborne Disease Risk Factors and Intervention Practices: A Review

Waterborne diseases remain a major global public health issue and a great environmental concern and the outbreak is common in African countries. Illness due to waterborne diseases causes morbidity and mortality in less developed countries among children aged below 5 years. This study was aimed at reviewing literature on past and present studies on waterborne diseases, the risk factors as well as the intervention practices. The unavailability of piped water and dependence of rural dwellers on surface waters which are often contaminated with fecal materials are the major causes of the rising prevalence of waterborne diseases. Poor hygienic practices have also been found to play significant role in the spread of waterborne diseases. Besides, poor environmental practices such as lack of sanitation facilities encourages spread of liquid and solid wastes within residential areas contributing to the increasing waterborne illness. Improvements in drinking water, sanitation facilities and hygiene practices in less developed countries have been suggested by many studies as key interventions to reduce waterborne diseases.

Approximation of ground water quality for microbial and chemical contamination.

Present study was designed to obtain estimation about ground water quality of Bhimber, Azad Jammu and Kashmir (AJK), Pakistan. A total of 12 water samples were collected from different localities of study area to analyze for various physicochemical and biological parameters i.e. namely temperature, pH, turbidity, color, odor, taste, electric conductivity (EC), total dissolved solids (TDS), total hardness (Calcium + Magnesium), chloride, arsenic, phosphate, lead, ammonium ion, nitrite, Fecal coliform and Escherichia coli. Results exposed that all ground water samples of study area were grossly contaminated with pathogenic microorganisms like E. coli and Fecal coliform except one water sample that was obtained from community filter plant Samahni Chowk site. Besides it, values of some physicochemical water quality determining parameters also deviated from recommended limits of World Health Organization (WHO). Chloride ion concentration was little below the prescribed limits in almost all water samples. It has been proven that consumption of un-safe drinking water is one of the major cause of prevalence of water borne diseases like diarrhea, gastroenteritis, typhoid fever and malaria etc. in study area. Community water supply and sanitation projects should be encouraged; government should provide filter plants in all regions of the country so that people could have easy approach to safe drinking water.

Towards sustainable water resource management in rural Nigeria: The role of communities

Access to water is crucial for healthy living and survival. In developing countries such as Nigeria, rural communities often suffer from a severe shortage of the supply of fresh, potable water. The need to change the tide has led to the inclusion of the adequate availability of water for allas one of the 2030 United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. Evidence shows that the lack or poor supply of freshwater could lead to a prevalence of waterborne diseases and might negatively affect economically important activities. While water sustainability deals with ensuring adequate supply of water for the present and future generations, water resource management is the strategy for achieving water sustainability. Considering the above, this article examines the literature on water resource management vis-à-vis the legal framework for water management in Nigeria. The article notes that rural communities in the country have a critical role to play in water resource management in the country and in the quest to attain the goals for water. It is recommended that policies should be implemented to provide for sustainable management of water as well as a strategy for educating rural communities on what they must do to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals for water management in Nigeria at the rural community level. For example, there is a need to provide for private sector led water development projects in rural areas backed by government subsidy as well as programmes to enlighten community leaders on their role in ensuring water sustainability.&#x0D; Keywords: Water, access to water, legal framework for water management, rural area, SDGs, Nigeria.

Modelling the influence of short-term climate variability on drinking water quality in tropical developing countries: A case study in Tanzania

Climate change is expected to increase the prevalence of water-borne diseases especially in developing countries. Climate-resilient drinking water supplies are critical to protect communities from faecal contamination and thus against increasing disease risks. However, no quantitative assessment exists for the impacts of short-term climate variability on faecal contamination at different drinking water sources in developing countries, while existing understanding remains largely conceptual. This critical gap limits the ability to predict drinking water quality under climate change or to recommend climate-resilient water sources for vulnerable communities. This study aims to provide such quantitative understanding by investigating the relationships between faecal contamination and short-term climate variability across different types of water sources. We collected a novel dataset with over 20 months' monitoring of weather, Escherichia coli (E. coli) and total coliforms, at 233 different water sources in three climatically different regions in Tanzania. We then took a rigorous statistical analysis with Bayesian hierarchical models, to relate both contamination occurrence and amount to climate variability. The model results explained the temporal variability in drinking water faecal contamination using climate predictors, and also revealed the climate sensitivity of faecal contamination for individual water sources. We found that: a) short-term climate variability and baseline contamination levels can explain about half the observed variability in faecal contamination (R2 ≥ 0.44); b) increased contamination was most consistently related to recent heavy rainfall and high temperature across different water sources; c) unimproved water sources such as the unprotected dug wells have substantially higher climate sensitivity. Based on these results, we can expect substantial increases in drinking water contamination risks across tropical Sub-Saharan Africa and South-East Asian developing countries under a warmer climate, which highlight the urgent need of protecting vulnerable communities from the severe climate impacts.

Prevalence of Waterborne Diseases in Bade, Nguru and Machina Local Government Areas of Yobe State-Nigeria

Waterborne diseases are mainly caused by consuming food or water tainted with faecal matter or urine of human or animal which contains pathogens. Records have shown that Yobe State is one of the states in Nigeria that have recorded mortalities due to waterborne infections. This study is aimed at identifying common waterborne diseases such as cholera, typhoid, infectious hepatitis, giadiasis, amoebiasis, and dracunculiasis between 2017 and 2019 in three local Government Areas (L.G.As) of Yobe State. Personal interview was employed to generate information from the local people on sources of drinking water in three sampled geo – political wards (Bade, Nguru and Machine L.G.As). Results revealed that most of the dwellers in the study area drink from non – potable water sources such as faucets, hand pump, wash boreholes, wells, rivers, pools and creeks. Results also show that people from the study area do not drink potable water. A total of 1204 cholera cases were reported between 2017 and 2019 in the study areas with Machina L.G.A having the highest number of cases (446) representing 37.04% of the total cases. Mortality due to cholera outbreak in all the surveyed LG.As was 124 with Bade L.G.A having the highest number (43) constituting 34.68% of total mortalities in the study areas. A total of 11,938 persons were infected with typhoid during the study period and Nguru L.G.A recorded the highest number of infections (4,438) representing 37.18% of total infections. Gender based percentage prevalence of typhoid in the study is higher in males (52.83%) than females (47.18%). Recommendations on how to overcome the menace have been highlighted.

A novel filtration system based on ceramic silver-impregnated pot filter combined with adsorption processes to remove waterborne bacteria

Halving the proportion of the people without sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation is among the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG). Lack of access to safe drinking water has been associated with the prevalence of waterborne diseases. Due to this reported association, the development of household water treatment devices has been an alternative to improve the quality supply of domestic water. In this study, we aimed to evaluate the performance of a ceramic silver-impregnated pot filter (CSF) system coupled with an adsorption process, composed of silver-impregnated granular activated carbon and zeolite (CSF + GAC-Z), to remove waterborne bacteria Escherichia coli and Salmonella spp. from spiked water. The performance of this system was compared with the conventional CSF system. In this respect, we evaluated six CSF and six CSF + GAC-Z using spiked water with 103 and 102 CFU/mL of E. coli and Salmonella spp. The mean percentage of removals ranged between 98% and 99.98%. The highest bacterial removal efficiency was recorded by the CSF + GAC-Z (99%) and CSF (99.98%) for E. coli and Salmonella spp., respectively, but no significant statistical differences were found between filtration systems. Our findings suggest that the CSF + GAC-Z system was effective in the removal of waterborne bacteria from spiked water.

Major ions, δD, δ18O and microbial characterization of drinking water sources along the West Coast of Cameroon

Hydrochemical data coupled to microbial content are required for a comprehensive understanding of water quality. Such knowledge is pertinent to the design of sustainable livelihoods related to water resources. Here we present physico-chemical, stable environmental isotopes and microbial characteristics of drinking water sources that were investigated during the dry and rainy seasons of 2015 and 2018, along the West Coast of Cameroon to assess potability, health impacts and impacts of climate change. Field work involved mapping, collection of water samples and measurement of physical parameters (pH, EC and temperature). Major ions and total coliform were analyzed using Ion Chromatography and the Violet Red Bile Lactose Agar, respectively. Microbial contaminated samples were analyzed for Escherichia coli and Salmonella spp. bacteria using MacConkey agar and Salmonella Shigella Agar agar, respectively. The health impacts of the water on the population were assessed based on records of water borne diseases from health centers and a hospital within the study area. δ18O and δD isotopic ratios of 6 monthly rainfall samples and 12 samples from the different water sources were analyzed with the PICARRO made Cavity Ring Down Spectrometer, model L2120. The results revealed various seasonal dependent water chemistry with facies such as Ca+Mg-HCO3, Na+K-Cl and Ca+Mg-Cl+SO4, Ca+Mg-HCO3, Na+K-HCO3 for the wet and dry seasons, respectively. Furthermore, except for some rivers that showed slight evaporation effects, the waters in the springs and wells represent pristine rainwater, which shows δ18O depletion trend in the 1960s and enrichment between 1972 and 2017. 57% of the water sources were contaminated by either Escherichia coli and/or Salmonella spp., thus not potable as records from health centers indicated high prevalence of water borne diseases, caused by microbial contamination of the drinking water sources and inadequate sanitation and hygiene. Based on major ions content, 16% of the water sources were unsuitable for drinking. Factors that control water chemistry include water–rock interaction, anthropic inputs, and climate change driven seawater intrusion. Integrated water resources management would include among others, construction of drinking water treatment plants and implementation of climate change adaptation measures in the water sector.

Spring quality assessment and effects on the health of inhabitants of Santa Sub-Division, North West Region, Cameroon

Lack of published data on the petrography and quality of drinkable water sources in Santa Sub Division renders the water quality in the locality doubtful. This research work was therefore aimed at evaluating the quality of spring water and its effects on human health since they depend on springs as their major source of drinking water. This work examines some petrographic, physicochemical and bacteriological properties and anthropogenic activities on water sources. Rock and water samples were collected from Mbei, Mbu, Njong and Santa Akum localities and analyzed using standard methods. Petrographic studies revealed three rock types: basalts, trachytes, and rhyolites. Organoleptic and physicochemical parameters fell within WHO limits indicating no contamination except for iron. Water facies were HCO3 –CO3–Cl, Ca–Na–K, SO4–Ca–Mg and HCO3–Ca–Mg while the major ions were HCO3-, K+, Ca2+ and Mg2+ with Total dissolved solids having the highest concentration (147.6 for both seasons), suggesting an influence of rock silicate weathering and ion exchange processes. However, pathogens were present in all the springs thus prevalence of waterborne diseases in Santa. This poor water quality was likely due to poor hygiene and anthropogenic activities. This water may lead to health implication to the community.Keywords: Santa Sub-division, spring quality, bacteria, contamination, petrography, anthropogenic.

Engineered Sewage Treatment System in Selected Niger Delta Environment

Water is life. Unfortunately, there has become a great scarcity of this precious liquid due to anthropogenic/human activities which have generated wastes, especially sewage that has not been adequately treated in the country, more especially in the poverty-stricken Niger Delta area of Nigeria. The few freshwater bodies not only serve a means for domestic use, including drinking, but it is also used as a means of direct sewage disposal both by the locals and other related unabated activities, thereby increasing the prevalence of water-borne diseases. &#x0D; A locally designed sewage plant “engineered sewage treatment system” (ESTS) was therefore designed and developed with local materials like palm kernel shell (PKS), periwinkle shell (PWS), charcoal, fine, and coarse sand to treat domestic wastewater and improve the quality of the available water source within the local communities. The ESTS was operated for three months, and weekly monitoring carried out. The analysis of the treated effluents showed a significant reduction in the levels of contaminants as most of the physicochemical and biological parameters were within acceptable limits by the World Health Organization/Federal Ministry of Environment (WHO/FMEnv). The quality of treated sewage water improved when subjected to treatment by ESTS and compared well to the borehole water, which served as control. The results of the treatment process showed a 93% to 100% treatment efficiency of ESTS in the removal of F. coliform, E. coli, Streptococcus and Clostridium from the sewage. This high-efficiency rate has provided a holistic and affordable (cost-effective) means to curb the proliferation of water- borne diseases and help improve water quality in riverine communities.

Groundwater quality assessment and human health risks in Gujranwala District, Pakistan

The availability of safe drinking water is imperative for healthy life but access to safe drinking water has become a major problem around the world, especially in developing countries such as Pakistan. The present study aimed to: assess the suitability of groundwater for potable use in Gujranwala district, Pakistan; examine the spatial distribution patterns of water quality parameters; and to identify the prevalence of waterborne diseases among locals and health risks to humans due to the consumption of groundwater. Eighty drinking water samples were collected from different areas of Gujranwala and analyzed following Standard American Public Health Association methods. A questionnaire survey related to the incidence of waterborne diseases in the area was also carried out. The averaged water quality index (AWQI) was computed using ArcGIS 10.3 model builder. The AWQI map indicated that the water quality was generally suitable for potable use with regard to its physiochemical parameters. However, 97.5% water samples were found to be bacteriologically contaminated. The mean concentration of metals in drinking water showed a decreasing trend in the order Cr > Cu > Zn > As > Co > Ni > Cd. Health risk index (HRI) was also calculated for exposure to metal concentration. For Cd, one sample showed an HRI value > 1 i.e. 1.59 and 1.36 for child and adult, respectively, while HRI for As showed values > 1 varying between 0.5 and 11 for child, and 0.4 and 9.6 for adults. For other metals HRIs was less than 1 (considered to be safe for the consumers). The study concludes that groundwater quality of study areas of Gujranwala has mostly deteriorated.

Public health challenges as a result of contaminated water sources in Kumba, Cameroon.

Kumba, the largest city in the Southwest Region of Cameroon, is characterized by the prevalence of waterborne diseases due to ingestion of contaminated water. Sixty-four water samples were collected from different sources including pipe-borne (PW), surface/stream (SW) and groundwater (HDW) sources as well as the catchment area (CW) in Kumba metropolis. These water samples were analyzed for physicochemical and microbiological parameters and the results compared with international standards. The results of physiochemical parameters showed that the water samples were mildly acidic, not saline and soft. The levels of some trace elements (Al, Fe, As, Cd, Co, Cu, Fe, Mn, Pb) in some water samples were higher than permissible limits. Water Quality Index, Contamination Index (Cd) and Trace Element Toxicity Index were used to evaluate the water samples. Results showed that most of the water sources are poor and unsafe for consumption due to high concentrations of Al, Fe, Mn and Pb. Microbiological parameters revealed that 74% of the water samples are in the class of high risk to grossly polluted. Pollution associated with the catchment area was probably the main factor controlling the quality of pipe-borne water, while that of the surface and groundwater may be attributed to geogenic and anthropogenic sources including unlined pit latrines. Water sources, especially those ingested by humans in Kumba, should be properly managed including regular treatment so as to protect the health of humans and improve the quality of life.