Prevalence Of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Research Articles

Association of cerebral palsy with autism spectrum disorder and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children: a large-scale nationwide population-based study

ObjectiveTo examine the association of cerebral palsy with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), providing evidence for interdisciplinary medical service for children with cerebral palsy.DesignA large-scale nationwide population-based...

Entrepreneurial mental health in the wake of COVID-19 in China with an emphasis on attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and dyslexia analysis

The COVID-19 pandemic has precipitated a global mental health crisis, with a particularly pronounced impact on the entrepreneurial sector. This paper presents a comparative analysis of mental health challenges among entrepreneurs in China during the pandemic, with a specific focus on attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and Dyslexia. The study assesses the prevalence of ADHD and dyslexia symptoms among established and emerging entrepreneurs in China, finding notable occurrences within this group. The research also examines the self-care practices of these entrepreneurs, shedding light on their approaches during the pandemic period. The findings highlight a complex interplay between mental health issues and entrepreneurial activities, suggesting that certain ADHD and dyslexia traits may offer unexpected benefits in the entrepreneurial realm. These insights are critical for developing supportive frameworks that leverage the strengths of neurodiverse entrepreneurs while mitigating associated challenges, especially in a post-pandemic economic landscape. The study concludes with policy and practice recommendations to bolster the wellbeing and resilience of entrepreneurs facing the multifaceted impacts of the pandemic.

ADHD and family life: A cross-sectional study of ADHD prevalence among pupils in China and factors associated with parental depression.

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is increasingly recognized as a major problem for children and their families in China. However, its influence on parental mental health has been seldom explored. To examine the prevalence of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in a community sample of children aged 6-13 years, and the extent to which it impacts parental mental health. Cross-sectional study of primary school pupils (number = 2497) in Deyang, Sichuan Province, South-West China. We used standardized instruments to identify children with ADHD symptoms and parent depression. The prevalence of ADHD was 9.8%. Factors associated with the likelihood of ADHD, included family environment(P = 0.003), time spent with children(P = 0.01), parenting style(P = 0.01), and parental relationship, pupils self-harm and lower academic ability (P = 0.001). After controlling for other factors, having a child with ADHD increased the likelihood of parents' depression (OR = 4.35, CI = 2.68~7.07), additional factors included parent relationship. ADHD may be a common disorder among Chinese children, the symptoms of which may increase the likelihood of parent depression. There is a need for greater detection of ADHD in schools, acknowledgement of the challenges the disorder creates for academic success and family wellbeing, and psychoeducational tools for supporting parents of children with ADHD.

Suspected geriatric onset of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in a patient with comorbid bipolar disorder

BackgroundAn increasing number of adults over 60 years old are presenting with requests for treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). However, the prevalence of ADHD in older adults in geriatrics is unknown. Further, comorbid bipolar disorder and adult ADHD are likely underrecognized with many patients only receiving treatment for one of these conditions. The occurrence of bipolar disorder with geriatric onset ADHD is unknown.Case presentationA 64-year-old Hispanic woman with a psychiatric history of bipolar I disorder (diagnosed in early adulthood) was diagnosed with ADHD suspected of geriatric onset, and able to be successfully managed on concurrent mood stabilizers and psychostimulant medication.ConclusionsThe findings of this case report emphasize the importance of appropriately recognizing and treating comorbid ADHD and bipolar disorder in any age group, including the geriatric population for which this occurrence appears to be very rare. Additionally, this case report demonstrates the safe utilization of psychostimulant medications in a geriatric patient with bipolar disorder without inducing a manic episode or other significant adverse reactions.

Rising Trends of Childhood Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder in a Large Integrated Healthcare Delivery System in Southern California, 2010-2021

ObjectiveTo evaluate trends of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) diagnosis rates among children aged 5-17 years over the past decade (2010-2021) and to investigate whether there have been differences in temporal changes based on race and ethnicity, sex, or income Study designChildhood ADHD diagnosis was ascertained from electronic health records using ICD-9 (314.xx) and ICD-10 (F90.x) codes. Data were stratified by child’s sex, race and ethnicity, and household income, and rates of ADHD were estimated before and after adjustment for potential confounders. ResultsThe overall ADHD diagnosis rates increased from 3.5% in 2010 to 4.0% in 2021. ADHD diagnosis was most prevalent among White children (6.1%), then Black (4.6%), Other/multiple (3.7%), Hispanic (3.1%), and Asian/Pacific Islander (PI) (1.7%). ADHD was also highly prevalent among boys (73.3%) or family income≥$70,000 (50.0%). ADHD diagnosis increased among Black (4.2% to 5.1%), Hispanic (2.8% to 3.6%) ,and Asian/PI children (1.5% to 2.0%) but remained stable for White (6.2% to 6.1%) and Other/multiple race/ethnic children (3.7% to 3.7%). Increases in the prevalence among girls were also observed. ConclusionThe prevalence of ADHD in children has risen with the largest increases observed for Black, Hispanic, and Asian/PI children. Rates among less affluent families and girls have also been increasing, narrowing the gaps in diagnosis rates previously observed. These increases may reflect improvements in screening and provision of care among demographics where ADHD has been historically underdiagnosed.

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in the diabetic population: relationship with metabolic syndrome and atherogenic index of plasma

Aims: The objective of the current study is to investigate the prevalence of Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) among individuals diagnosed with diabetes mellitus (DM). Additionally, this study aims to evaluate the potential association between ADHD and metabolic syndrome (MetS), atherogenic index of plasma (AIP), and other lipid parameters, considering the different types of DM. Methods: The study comprised 213 adult patients diagnosed with diabetes mellitus, consisting of 120 females and 93 males. Participants completed the Adult Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Self-Report Scale (ASRS) as a screening tool for symptoms. The study assessed many physiological indicators, including body mass index, waist circumference, blood pressure, glucose levels, cholesterol levels, high-density lipoprotein levels, low-density lipoprotein levels, triglyceride levels, uric acid levels, and glycated hemoglobin levels. Results: The study yielded a prevalence rate of 10.7% for ADHD among diabetes individuals. The prevalence of ADHD was found to be more common in individuals diagnosed with type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) compared to those with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), with rates of 15.4% and 9.8% respectively. The study revealed that individuals diagnosed with T2DM who also had MetS, organ involvement, concurrent disorders, and stress-related eating had significantly higher scores on the ASRS/T scale. There was a correlation observed between the ASRS-HI and AIP levels in individuals diagnosed with T2DM. The statistical analysis revealed that ADHD-HI and T scores significantly influenced the severity of MetS. A progressive increase in ASRS/T and ASRS/I scores was observed with the duration of DM. Conclusion: In conclusion, by recognizing and treating accompanying neuropsychiatric conditions such as ADHD symptoms in diabetic patients, individuals may exhibit improved adherence to lifestyle modifications and antidiabetic therapies. This approach potentially reduces the risks of acute and chronic complications, including cardiovascular risk, through the enhanced management of DM.

Prevalence of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): systematic review and meta-analysis.

The estimates of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) prevalence across various studies are significantly variable, contributing to uncertainty in ADHD prevalence estimation. Previous systematic reviews and meta-analyses have attributed this variability primarily to the methodological characteristics of the studies, including the diagnostic criteria, source of information, and impairment requirement for the diagnosis. Review identified studies reporting ADHD prevalence in representative samples of children and adults in Europe and worldwide. Studies that were conducted in the general population were included. We focused on studies that report ADHD prevalence based on clinical diagnosis (clinical diagnostic criteria based on the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders and International Classification of Diseases criteria, other diagnostic tools, such as various scales or interviews based on clinical diagnostic criteria). PubMed/Medline was searched to identify relevant articles published until 2024/2/01. The study was registered in PROSPERO (CRD42020200220) and followed Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses 2020 guidelines for systematic review and meta-analysis. In total, 117 studies were subjected to full evaluation. In the meta-analysis, 103 studies representing 159 independent datapoints were included. The overall prevalence of ADHD in register studies was 1.6%, 95% CI [0.9; 3.0], in survey studies 5.0%, 95% CI [2.9; 8.6], in one-stage clinical studies 4.2%, 95% CI [2.9; 6.0], and in two-stage clinical studies 4.8%, 95% CI [4.0; 5.8]. Exact comparisons among studies with different diagnostic criteria and types of sampling can impact prevalence estimates. When comparing data from methodologically different studies, these factors need to be considered.

Prevalence of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in children, adolescents and adults in the Middle East and North Africa region: a systematic review and meta-analysis

ObjectivesTo systematically estimate the overall prevalence of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children, adolescents and adults across the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region.DesignSystematic review and meta-analysis conducted according...

The Population of Children with High Risk of ADHD and The Mother’s Sociodemographic Profile in Surabaya

Objective: Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder with several symptoms in the form of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity. There are no official data regarding the prevalence of ADHD in Indonesia, and data in regards to ADHD prevalences are limited to several studies. This study aims to give perspective on the prevalence of children’s ADHD risk in Surabaya. Methods: This study was conducted at three elementary schools in Surabaya. All students between grades 3 to 6 were invited as participants in this study, with the forms being filled out by their mother. The risk of ADHD is measured with SPPAHI. Additionally, we also collected the mothers’ sociodemographic data. Result: Among the 358 mothers, there were 54 mothers (15,1%) who had children with ADHD symptoms, as evidenced by a questionnaire score on the Hyperactive and Impulsive Child Behavior Assessment Scale (SPPAHI) >30. Conclusions: Further research and examination are required to properly diagnose ADHD in children.

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in Mozambique: an epidemiological investigation in a primary school sample.

To evaluate the prevalence of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), comorbidity rates with disruptive behavior disorders and main negative outcomes in primary school students in Nampula, Mozambique. We selected a random sample of 748 students for ADHD screening from a population of around 43,000 primary school students. The Swanson, Nolan, and Pelham Rating Scale version IV was applied to both parents and teachers. All students who screened positive (n=76) and a propensity score-matched random subset of students who screened negative (n=76) were assessed by a child psychiatrist. The prevalence of ADHD was estimated at 13.4% (95%CI 11.5-19.2), and 30.6% of those with ADHD presented comorbid disruptive behavior disorders. Students with ADHD (n=36) had significantly higher rates of both substance use (alcohol, marijuana) (p < 0.001), and school failures than controls (n=96; p < 0.001). Comorbidity between ADHD and disruptive behavior disorders increased the chance of substance use (p < 0.001). Secondary analyses with more restrictive ADHD diagnostic criteria revealed a lower prevalence rate (6.7%; 95%CI 5.2-12.9) with similar patterns of associated factors and negative outcomes. Our findings demonstrated that ADHD is a prevalent mental disorder in Mozambique, and it is associated with similar comorbid profiles, predisposing factors, and negative outcomes, as in other cultures.

A Boy With KIF11‐Associated Disorder Along With ADHD and ASD: Collaboration Between Paediatrics and Child Psychiatry

Kinesin family member 11 (KIF11)‐associated disorder, a rare condition caused by autosomal dominant mutations in the KIF11 gene, presents with microcephaly, chorioretinal dysplasia, lymphoedema, and varying degrees of intellectual disability. While intellectual disability is often described in the literature on KIF11 mutations, autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are only mentioned by a few authors but not thoroughly investigated. We present a case report of an 8‐year‐old boy with KIF11‐associated disorder alongside ADHD and ASD but without intellectual disability. Genetic testing confirmed a KIF11 mutation. Cognitive, language, and motor assessments revealed delays in fine motor skills and attention deficits. The diagnosis of ADHD was confirmed by a child neurologist through multidisciplinary investigations, while the ASD diagnosis was established by a child psychiatrist. Despite the challenges of delayed psychiatric assessment, interventions including physiotherapy and medication management were initiated with positive results. We designed a parent support group survey that showed a higher prevalence of neurodevelopmental disorders in children with KIF11 mutations compared to the general population. Therefore, low‐threshold referrals to a child psychiatrist have to be made when the potential presence of developmental problems is suspected. Collaboration between ophthalmologists, paediatricians, and child psychiatrists is crucial for early detection and intervention. Addressing developmental disorders promptly improves long‐term outcomes and enhances quality of life. Moreover, gaining a deeper understanding of the higher prevalence of ASD and ADHD in individuals with KIF11 mutations could offer valuable insights into the genetic mechanisms underlying neurodevelopmental disorders.

Socio-demographic and clinical profiles of children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in a tertiary care hospital of Kashmir

Abstract INTRODUCTION: Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a prevalent neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by hyperactivity, inattention, or both, often emerging before the age of 12 years. With a global impact on approximately 136 million children and adolescents, ADHD’s prevalence ranges from 5% to 6%. Despite its higher occurrence in males, ADHD can persist into adulthood, posing risks of substance misuse and vocational difficulties. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This study investigates the socio-demographic and clinical profiles of children aged 6–16 years diagnosed with ADHD in Kashmir. Using a cross-sectional analytic design, data were collected from 208 participants attending the Child Guidance and Wellbeing Center at the Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences, Kashmir. RESULTS: The gender distribution highlights male predominance (69.2%), which aligns with established models. ADHD prevalence decreases with age, consistent with symptom reduction trends. Socio-economic analysis reveals a prevalence in the lower middle and upper lower classes, suggesting financial difficulties as a predictor of ADHD. The combined subtype of ADHD is the most prevalent (71.2%). CONCLUSION: These findings emphasize the need for tailored interventions and approaches to address ADHD’s diverse presentations in children and adolescents. Although the study acknowledges limitations such as sample size and cross-sectional design, it contributes novel insights into ADHD’s manifestation and underscores the importance of addressing unique characteristics associated with each subtype and age group. Such efforts can optimize ADHD management and outcomes for affected individuals.

Onverwacht uterien bloedverlies bij methylfenidaat

Unexpected methylphenidate-induced uterine bleeding In most countries, methylphenidate appears to be the main pharmacological treatment for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The global prevalence of ADHD is estimated to be approximately 2.5% in adults and 5-7% in children. This case report examines the link between the initiation of extended-release methylphenidate and the occurrence of unexpected uterine bleeding in a patient, aiming to determine if there is any scientific basis for considering this symptom as a side effect of methylphenidate. Although there are some suspicions in the literature, the evidence is still too limited to explain a causal relationship between methylphenidate and unexpected uterine bleeding. In recent years, scientific studies have shown a growing awareness of ADHD in the female population, while women and girls were previously diagnosed with ADHD much less frequently and much later. However, this phenomenon of underrepresentation of women still occurs in the available scientific literature, especially in somewhat older studies. In future research, an important challenge lies in further monitoring any potential effects of methylphenidate on the female reproductive system, adequately reporting contraceptive use in study populations, as well as detailing all adverse events and reasons for study dropouts.

Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder among children of immigrants: immigrant generation and family poverty

ABSTRACT Objectives: Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is one of the most common disorders diagnosed among children in the US. However, little knowledge is available about ADHD prevalence among children of immigrants, the fastest-growing population in the US. This study seeks to examine ADHD rates among children of immigrants in different generations compared to children of US-born parents and their association with family poverty. Design: The sample includes 83,362 children aged 0–17 from the National Health Interview Survey (NHIS) 2010–2018 data. Multivariate logistic regression model is used to estimate prevalence of ADHD among children of immigrants compared to children of US-born parents. We then compare ADHD rates among the children sample in different immigrant generations. For all analyses, we examine ADHD occurrence separately for children in families living below the poverty threshold and those at or above the poverty threshold. Results: The odds of having ADHD were significantly lower among children of immigrants compared to children of US-born parents. Both first-generation children and second-generation children of immigrants had significantly lower odds of having ADHD than children of US-born parents. Post hoc tests find that first-generation children had lower odds of having ADHD compared to second-generation children. Likewise, additional analyses showed that children of immigrants, first-generation children in particular, were less likely to have ADHD compared to children of US-born parents, in both lower- and higher-income families. Conclusion: Using a nationally representative sample of children, we find that the likelihood of having ADHD increases with higher generations, detecting differences in ADHD prevalence by immigration generation. Importantly, first-generation children had a significantly lower risk of having ADHD conditions compared to second-generation children and children of US-born parents, regardless of family socio-economic status. Public health policy and program development would gain from a clear comprehension of the shielding attributes of ADHD among immigrant families.

Prevalence of Undiagnosed Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) Symptoms in the Young Adult Population of the United Arab Emirates: A National Cross-Sectional Study

BackgroundAttention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), a globally prevalent behavioural disorder, remains underdiagnosed, particularly among adults. This issue is exacerbated in the Arab region due to stigma and insufficient healthcare facilities and professionals. Despite the United Arab Emirates (UAE) efforts to improve mental healthcare, shortcomings persist. No studies in the UAE currently assesses the appropriateness of the screening system for ADHD and other behavioural issues. Furthermore, prevalence rates of ADHD, particularly within the young adult population, are absent.AimTo estimate the prevalence of ADHD amongst young adults attending university in UAE and examine its relationship with gender and academic outcomes.MethodsA cross-sectional, correlational design was used. Young adults in their first year at university were recruited from different academic institutions across the UAE. The study utilized the Adult ADHD Self-Report Scale (ASRS) for data collection.ResultsA sample of 406 young adults, aged between 18 and 20 years of age were recruited. Approximately, 34.7% (n = 141) reported symptoms suggestive of probable ADHD. Significantly lower grade point average marks were observed in participants with ADHD symptoms (M = 3.15) compared to those without (M = 3.35). Females reported symptoms of probable ADHD at higher rates than males, indicating possibly a potential screening deficiency and a potential stigma consequence.ConclusionsThe study demonstrates a high prevalence of probable ADHD in young adults, particularly among females attending university in the United Arab Emirates. Implications for early screening, service provision, and greater professional health training on this disorder are required.

Prevalence of ADHD and factors for parent's participation in the care of children with ADHD, Yasothon, Thailand.

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a mental health disorder commonly observed in children. Parents' participation in the care (PPC) of children with ADHD (C-ADHD) is especially important to promote support care and treatment. We estimated the prevalence of C-ADHD and identified the factors for the PPC of C-ADHD. A cross-sectional analytic study was conducted on parents and grade-one students in five primary schools, Muang district, Yasothon, Thailand. The study was conducted from March to June 2022. Data were collected using the screening test of SNAP-IV Thai version and by interviewing child psychiatrists and parents. Descriptive statistics were used to summarize the demographic data and prevalence of C-ADHD. Unconditional multiple logistic regression was used to identify predictive statistical model for the PPC of C-ADHD. Four hundred sixty-four students were screened by SNAP-IV, of which 30 students were confirmed as ADHD (6.5% [95% confidence interval [CI]: 4.4-9.1]), with 9.1% boys and 3.6% girls. Four factors associated with the PPC of C-ADHD significantly including male (ORadj: 2.5, 95% CI: 1.4-4.4), single divorce status (ORadj: 2.1, 95% CI: 1.1-4.2), income more than 15,000 baht (ORadj: 3.1, 95% CI: 1.8-5.1), and attitude level during middle-high (ORadj: 8.4, 95% CI: 5.0-14.2). Predictive factors of four variables can be used to implement the policy to improve the healthcare system, prevention, and PPC of C-ADHD.

Medical education: Accommodating students with ADHD

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder that affects a significant number of medical students worldwide. It is poorly recognised by educators, and therefore inadequately accommodated for in educational strategies. In order to investigate this further, a literature review and pilot survey were conducted. Health educators employed by The University of Newcastle, Australia, completed a short online survey, which focused on their understanding of, and ability to recognise and adapt teaching strategies for students with ADHD. The results of the survey informed the development of a resource that provided evidence-based strategies for supporting the learning of tertiary students with ADHD. In addition, the results of this pilot study may form the basis for further research in this domain. Given the prevalence and potential impact of ADHD on higher education, it is important to gain deeper insight into how medical educators can best engage and support students with ADHD. This knowledge may potentially reduce the negative impacts of this neurodiversity on students and support their learning and well-being throughout their medical career. Ultimately this may help doctors to achieve their full potential, especially in clinical decision-making.

Prevalence and Comorbidities of Adult Attention-deficit/hyperactivity Disorder in a Community Sample from Korea.

: Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is prevalent in adults, and psychiatric comorbidities are common in adults with ADHD. We aimed to examine the prevalence of adult ADHD with several common psychiatric conditions in a community sample in Korea and the association between adult ADHD and risk of psychiatric comorbidities. : This study used a cross-sectional survey design. We provided supplementary and optional self-report questionnaires, including the Korean version of the World Health Organization Adult ADHD Self-Report Scale (ASRS) short screening scale, Patient Health Questionnaire-9 for screening for depression, Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test alcohol consumption questions, and the Korean version of the Mood Disorders Questionnaire, to Korean adults who visited one of six centers of a large private healthcare company for the National General Health Examination. : A total of 17,799 subjects included in this study, and 430 (2.4%) were positive on the ASRS screen. ADHD was significantly associated with the 19-30-year-old age group (odds ratio [OR] = 3.938), lower income (OR = 1.298), depression (OR = 11.563), and bipolar disorder (OR = 3.162). : Adult ADHD was highly associated with depression and bipolar disorder, suggesting that clinicians should carefully evaluate and treat such psychiatric disorders in adults with ADHD symptoms.

Are congenital heart defects connected to more severe attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder?: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

Congenital heart defects (CHDs) are the most common cause of birth defect-related infant morbidity and mortality, affecting 1% of 40,000 births per year in the United States. On the other side, the etiology of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is multifactorial. Multiple studies have found that cardiac surgery patients have higher morbidity of having this disorder. Many studies have investigated the prevalence of ADHD in different subtypes of CHD, but few have focused on the severity of ADHD symptoms. Thus, we conducted this systematic review and meta-analysis to investigate the severity of ADHD symptoms in CHD patients. We searched PubMed, Embase, Scopus, and Web of Science were searched from inception to March 6, 2023 without any restrictions. We included observational studies published in English language that evaluated burden of symptom of ADHD in CHD patients. Moreover, the standardized mean difference (SMD) for continuous outcomes with 95% confidence interval (CI) was pooled. P-values <.05 are considered as significant, and we performed all statistical analyses using RevMan software Version 5.4.1. Eight studies were included in our review with a total number of 120,158 patients. CHD was associated with a statistically significant increase in both ADHD index T score and ADHD Hyperactivity-Impulsivity Subscale (informant) with (SMD = 0.65, 95% CI [0.40, 0.90], P < .00001, I2 = 81%) and (SMD = 0.16, 95% CI [0.04, 0.28], P = .008, I2 = 0%). Regarding ADHD Inattention Subscale (informant), the pooled data showed that a significant increase of this score in the CHD group (SMD = 0.25, 95% CI [0.13, 0.37], P < .001, I2 = 0%), and ADHD Combined Score (informant) showed a significant increase of this score in the CHD group (SMD = 0.23, 95% CI [0.11, 0.35], P = .0002, I2 = 0%). Our study revealed a strong association between CHD and not only ADHD, but also the severity of ADHD, making early diagnosis of ADHD in children with CHD a mandatory step in the clinical evaluation practice to improve these children on both clinical and psychological aspects.

The Prevalence of Risk Factors Among Children Diagnosed With Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, Aged 4-17 Years: A Cross-Sectional Study.

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder commonly observed in children. Although the etiology of ADHD is still unclear, many risk factors have been shown to increase the prevalence of ADHD, such as genetics, environmental factors, socioeconomic status, maternal smoking, and low birth weight. The current cross-sectionalstudy aimed to assess the prevalence of several risk factors associated with ADHD-diagnosed children aged 4-17 years using parent-reported data. An observational cross-section study was conducted between December 2022 and February 2023 using a self-constructed questionnaire that we sent to parents whose children were diagnosed with ADHD. The questionnaire included socioeconomic information (income, gender, parent education, number of children), child information (age, ADHD type, academic achievement), pregnancy and neonatal period (smoking status, gestation age, mode of delivery, child weight), and if there is a history of ADHD in the family. A total of 306 parents responded to the questionnaire. The majority of our study population was males (77.8%). The combined type, which includes symptoms of both hyperactivity and inattention, represented 70% of the population in our study, which is higher than the inattention type (23%) and the hyperactivity type (6%). The prevalence of several risk factors known to be associated with ADHD, such as family income, parental education, complications during pregnancy, and the low birth weight of the child, were also reported. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study that examines the frequency of risk factors among children diagnosed with ADHD in Saudi Arabia. The study revealed that males are more likely to be diagnosed with ADHD than females. We also found that the combined type is the most diagnosed ADHD among children. Furthermore, there are no significant differences in the prevalence of the risk factors during the gestational or neonatal period among ADHD-diagnosed children. Therefore, a large-scale prospective study is needed to aid in evaluating the frequency and significance of various risk factors among diagnosed children.