Pretest Reading Research Articles

Predicting Response to Neuropsychological Intervention in Developmental Dyslexia: A Retrospective Study.

Identifying the patients who are likely to be non-responders to a certain treatment may allow clinicians to provide alternative strategies and avoid frustration and unrealistic expectations for the patients and their families. A retrospective study on 145 children treated with visual hemisphere-specific stimulation examined the specific profiles (reading, writing, metaphonology, memory, callosal functions) of non-responders, and identified predictors of response to intervention (reading, reading and writing) through linear regression models. The effects of additional variables such as rapid automatized naming (RAN) and Visual Search were investigated in a subsample of 48 participants. Subgroups related to gender and dyslexia subtype were considered in the analyses. The results highlight an Intervention Differential Effect (IDE) not depending on regression to the mean and mathematical coupling effects. The characteristics of non-responders for reading seem to correspond children with mild reading and severe writing impairments; non-responders for reading and writing are those with impaired callosal transfer. Predictors of overall response to intervention were pre-test reading and writing scores; phoneme blending, accuracy in visual search and speed in rapid automatized naming contributed to explaining response variance. Specific predictors for female vs. male participants and dyslexia subtypes were identified.

Learning to Implement Dialogic Reading Through Video-Based Online Training: A Preliminary Study.

Dialogic reading (DR) is an evidence-based method for reading with young children that is associated with improvements in children's oral language skills. There is, however, a lack of consensus on (a) how to train educators to deliver the intervention and (b) methods for assessing implementation fidelity. We designed this study to provide preliminary data about the viability of online video modules as an initial training option within a future tiered training model. We employed a within-subject repeated-measures group design to evaluate educators' (N = 20) implementation of DR after viewing training videos. Educators filmed themselves reading three storybooks with a child "as they would typically" to establish pretest reading behaviors. After being given access to a series of DR training videos, the educators recorded themselves reading three storybooks with the child using DR strategies as a posttest measure. Educators improved their use of individual strategies included in the DR instructional sequence at posttest; however, most participants did not consistently follow the entire instructional sequence as designed. Only one educator delivered the complete DR instructional sequence in > 80% of opportunities at posttest. Modifications to video training modules and additional coaching support may be warranted for many educators to achieve the level of implementation fidelity needed to improve the child's oral language skills from the intervention. https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.25749387.

The Effect of Local Wisdom-based Material on Student’s Reading Ability

The problem faced by human beings is the inability to live together harmoniously with others. This problem can be solved by learning and adapting local wisdom in every situation, this confirms that local wisdom is one of the crucial things to teach in schools. Local wisdom is very important because it contains moral values. The aim of this study is to analyze the material based on local wisdom has an effect on students' reading ability. The research design of this study is a quasi-experimental research with a non-equivalent control group design. This study was conducted on students of 12 grade senior high school, the sample used consisted of experimental and control classes each with 22 students, and the instruments used are test and non-test. The results of inferential statistical analysis using the paired sample t-test showed that the average value of the results of the experimental class's pretest reading ability was 67.77 while for the post-test experiment it was 85.55. In addition, the results of the questionnaire showed that there were about 89% of students gave a positive response, so it can be concluded that the application of material based on local wisdom has an effect on students' reading ability.

Upaya Peningkatan Pemahaman Mahasiswa Akuntansi Politeknik Negeri Semarang dalam Memahami Artikel Internasional

One of the educational problems that occur in Indonesia is the low interest in reading of students, especially the ability to read foreign language texts that are still low. This service activity aims to improve the understanding of accounting students of Politeknik Negeri Semarang in understanding international articles. The implementation of the activity was carried out by the author in the work unit of the Politeknik Negeri Semarang, Department of Accounting. There are 4 activities carried out from the 1st to the 30th of August 2020, namely; 1) Pre-Test reading habits and understanding of students in reading and understanding international articles, 2) Creating teaching materials for virtual tutorials and simulations of reading international articles, 3) Creating international article analysis assignment procedures, 4) Post Test of reading habits and student understanding in reading and understanding international articles. The activity was attended by final semester students of the finance and banking study program with 71 participants from KP 3A, 3B, and 3C classes. During the implementation of the activity the author received support from superiors, fellow lecturers, students and education personnel in the Accounting Department so that all activities could be completed.

THE EFFECT OF THE CAKE PLATFORM TOWARD STUDENTS’ SPEAKING SKILLS (A Pre-Experimental Research to the First-grade IPS 1 Students at SMAN 1 Peudada)

ABSTRACT
 The title of this research is the effect of cake platform toward students’ speaking skills (An experimental research to the first grade IPS-1 students of SMAN 1 peudada). The problem of this research 1) is the Cake platform can improve students’ speaking skills of the first-grade IPS 1 students at SAMN 1 Peudada? 2) is the use of the Cake platform effective toward speaking skills of the first-grade IPS 1 students at SMAN 1 Peudada?. The purpose of this research 1) to determine whether or not the Cake platform can improve students’ speaking skills of the first–grade IPS 1 students at SMAN 1 Peudada. 2) to determine whetheror not the Cake platforms effective toward speaking skills of the first grade IPS 1 students at SMAN 1 Peudada. The methodology of this research was a pre-experimental design. The population of this research was SMAN 1 Peudada. The sample of this research was first-grade IPS 1 which consist 28 students in the class. The used of intrument of this research was speaking test and questionnaire. Data were analyzed quantitatively using SPSS Statistics Output, such as the Normality Test and Paired-Sample T-test. Meanwhile, the average pre-test and post-test speaking scores were analyzed differently based on specific objectives. The use of the Cake platform as a medium to improve students' speaking skills is effective, this can be seen from the average post-test reading comprehension score µ = 76.25 higher than the pre-test reading comprehension average score. From the data analysis, the results of the Paired-Sample T-test were 0.000 <0.05 with a significant value if Sig. (2-tailed) < 0.05 means there is a significant difference, with normally distributed data, Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) = 0.434 on the basis of the Normality Test decision making using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov significance data, if the significance value is > 0.05 then the residual value is normally distributed. Thus, the alternative research hypothesis (Ha) is accepted and the null hypothesis (Ho) is rejected. It can be interpreted that the influence of the Cake platform as a media for improving students' speaking skills is an effective strategy for students to improve their speaking.

The effects of syntactic vs. semantic feature analysis of words on Iranian EFL learners' reading comprehension

IntroductionThe development of learners' semantic and syntactic knowledge of words and vocabulary plays an essential role in reading comprehension. This study attempted to investigate and compare the impact of instructing syntactic and semantic analyses of word features on Iranian EFL learners' reading comprehension.MethodsThree groups were selected: one was the control group and two were used as experimental groups. Students in all groups took part in a reading pretest. Two experimental groups received specific treatments, while the control group followed a traditional syllabus. All groups took part in a reading comprehension posttest at the end of the syllabus.Results and discussionThe results revealed that the syntactic analysis group outperformed the semantic analysis and control groups in the posttest. In addition, the participants in the semantic analysis group outperformed the students in the control group in the posttest. The results of this study could help teachers, learners, and textbook writers to improve reading skills in teaching, learning, and material development.

The Effectiveness of Comic Strip in Improving Students’ Vocabulary and Reading Comprehension

The purpose of this study was to discover there was a substantial effect of using comic strips on students’ vocabulary and reading comprehension in the tenth grade at SMK Lab Business School Kota Tangerang. The researcher used a quantitative method. In this study, pre-experimental research one-group pre-test post-test was used with 40 students as the sample, which was taken at non-random. The instruments for data collection were vocabulary and reading comprehension tests. The data distribution was not normal, so the researcher used Wilcoxon Signed Rank to analyze it. The Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test vocabulary and reading comprehension results of the above pre-test and post-test data were 0.000 less than 0.05. The mean score for the pre-test vocabulary was 58.12 and the mean score for the post-test vocabulary was 78.63. Meanwhile, the pre-test reading comprehension score was 58.12 and the post-test score was 78.63. It revealed a significant increase from the first to the second mean score. As a result, the findings of this study, which used comic strips to improve students’ vocabulary and reading comprehension in the tenth grade at SMK Lab Business School Kota Tangerang had a significant effect. This suggests that comic strips can be used as an alternative media in the process of teaching vocabulary and reading comprehension.Keywords: Comic Strip, Reading Comprehension, Vocabulary

The Effects of Task-Based Instructions on Secondary Students' Reading Performances

The study's goal is to cast light on the impacts of task-based instruction on the reading comprehension of EFL secondary students. The process was undertaken in a middle school in Kien Giang province in 2022. Reading pre-test and post-test data were first employed to gather research data from more than 70 students in a Secondary school. The post-tests were conducted after the pre-tests for five weeks. Then the data was converted into an excel version to be processed. Research results reveal that task-based instruction positively influenced learners' reading performances. The mean scores from the reading post-tests are relatively higher than those of the reading pre-tests. It can be inferred that students who participated in the treatment could improve their reading capability. Thus, having said that teachers used the TBI appropriately, they could scaffold their students' reading performance in particular and boost students' reading competency as a whole.

THE EFFECT OF SOMATOSENSORY INPUT BYAPPLICATION OF KINESIOTAPING OVER WRIST IN SUBACUTE AND CHRONIC STROKE PATIENTS

Background: Post-stroke motor function disability is a common complication in patients with stroke and a key contributor to impaired hand function after stroke: Cerebrovascular accident (CVA) is the second most frequent cause of death in the world. Nevertheless, most victims do survive and need treatment, and hand function is one that has to be dealt with in the rehabilitation process. Kinesio Taping (KT) is a bandaging method that can be applied along the muscle fibers to provide stimulation. Studies have shown its efficacy in providing afferent stimuli to weakened muscles, thus eliciting contraction with greater recruiting of motor units and inducing neuroplasticity. Objective: The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of Kinesio taping on managing motor function of wrist motor performance in patients with sub-acute and chronic stroke. Method: An experimental comparative study design, 30 patients (mean age range40-66) with stroke and randomized 15patients in each group, Group A received conventional therapy and group B received kinesiotape with conventional therapy. Both groups were assessed in week o (before study) and week 5 (end of study) assessment measures were done using Fugl- Meyer scale and nine-hole peg test. Results: A total number of 30 patients were included in both the groups. 15 patients were put in Group A and B respectively. For Group A- treated with conventional therapy had undergone test on day 1(mean of pre-test readings) and after (mean of post-test reading) t=(p<0.0001). For Group B Kinesiotaping of wrist along with Conventional therapy. Total no patients (-M, -F with mean age) had undergone test on day 1(mean of pre-test) and after (mean of post-test) t=(p<0.0001). This study is to compare the Conventional therapy (mean=) and Conventional therapy with kinesiotaping of wrist (mean=) in chronic stroke Patients with two sample t-test for population mean with 5% level of significance. Conclusion: The effect of kinesiotaping along with conventional therapy is significantly better result as compare to conventional therapy on reducing spasticity and improving functional disability in patients with motor dysfunction.

Reading Digital Texts vs. Reading Printed Texts: Which One Is More Effective in Iranian EFL Context?

Considering the development of technology in the current era, the present research aimed at investigating the effects of reading digital texts vs. reading printed texts on developing Iranian intermediate EFL learners’ reading comprehension. To this end, the Oxford Quick Placement Test (OQPT) was administered to 93 language learners, and 60 of them whose level was intermediate were selected. Then, they were assigned to two groups: one CG and one EG. After grouping the participants, a reading pretest was administered to gauge the participants’ reading comprehension before conducting the treatment. After that, ten digital texts in the format of PDF with their audio files were instructed to the EG. On the other hand, the same texts were taught to the CG in a printed format. After teaching all texts, a reading posttest was administered to both groups to measure the effects of the treatment on their reading comprehension. The gained data were analyzed using paired samples and independent samples t-tests. The findings illustrated that both digital and printed texts helped the participants to improve their reading comprehension, but digital texts were more effective than printed ones. In other words, the EG participants trained by the digital texts outflanked the CG participants taught through the printed texts. The implications of this study can inspire both English teachers and learners to use digital texts in their teaching and learning.

Improving English reading fluency and comprehension for children with reading fluency disabilities.

In the English language, students who read words accurately but have impairments in reading fluency are under-studied. The associated difficulties they have with comprehending text make it particularly important to delineate effective interventions for these students. Counter to suggestions that these readers need interventions focused on text reading, we examined the effects of a decoding-focused intervention. The intervention targeted decoding-related skills, including speeded training on sublexical spelling patterns. We examined the efficacy of this program for students with fluency-defined disabilities, and compared gains to those for students with accuracy-defined disabilities. In the initial phase of the program, readers with fluency-defined disabilities made greater gains in fluency, while readers with accuracy-defined disabilities made larger gains in word reading accuracy. The mean fluency score for readers with fluency-defined disabilities came within the average range across the intervention, as did reading comprehension for both groups. Readers' mastery on speeded learning of sublexical spelling patterns predicted unique variance in fluency outcomes, beyond variance accounted for by pre-test fluency and word reading accuracy. The results support intervention approaches focused on decoding-related skills for students who have fluency-defined disabilities and are consistent with theories of reading fluency that identify a role for automaticity with sublexical spelling patterns.

Dynamic Assessment of EFL Learners’ Reading Strategies: Introducing ‘Sauce’-Format Mediation

Sandwich and cake formats of interventionist Dynamic Assessment suffer from two problems: both are time-demanding, and the intervention presented to the learners varies from one learner to another. To suggest a solution to the above problems in teaching and assessing reading strategies, the present researchers have introduced ‘sauce’-format mediation through which intervention is provided for the learners within ‘mediation boxes’ along the test. Thirty Iranian intermediate EFL learners participated in the study. They were first given a non-mediated reading pretest, and then they took the same test along with a ‘mediation box’ following each question to observe the probable effect of ‘sauce’-format mediation. To measure the transcendence of the given mediation, the participants answered a non-mediated delayed posttest at the end. Comparing the means of the mediated posttest and non-mediated pretest on the one hand and those of the non-mediated delayed posttest and the pretest on the other revealed that the learners benefitted significantly well from the ‘sauce’-format mediation and could transfer their learning to a novel context. Findings of this study are consistent with the previous research on DA that intervention supports learner development.

EFFECT OF LEARNING METHODS ASSISTED BY SAS (SYNTHETIC ANALYTICAL STRUCTURES) WITH LETTER CARD MEDIA ON PARTICIPANTS' BEGINNING READING ABILITY STUDENTS AT PRIMARY SCHOOL 49 BANDA ACEH

The research objective was to determine the effect of the SAS (Synthetic Analytical Structure) learning method assisted by letter card media on students' initial reading skills at Primary School 49 Banda Aceh on the theme of clean and healthy life in school. This research was conducted by pre-experimental method with one group pretest-posttest design which was held at Primary School 49 Banda Aceh, in the odd semester of the 2018/2019 academic year. The sample in this study were students of grade II Primary School 49 Banda Aceh with a total of 28 students. Data collection was carried out by giving students pre-test reading questions in the form of command questions as many as 10 pre-test questions and 10 post-test questions. A normality test is done to see the normality of the data and showed that the data were normally distributed with an average value calculated < table (3.8597 <11.07). Based on the results of the study, it can be concluded that there is an effect of the use of the SAS learning method assisted by card media on the improvement of students' initial reading skills at Primary School 49 Banda Aceh with a value of tcount > ttable (10.147> 1.703), while in the test the increase in N-Gain is a high category. Percentage 57.14%, and 42.86% medium category. The conclusion is that there is an increase in the beginning reading ability of students who are taught using the SAS method aided by letter card media.

PENERAPAN METODE STRUKTURAL ANALITIK SINTETIK (SAS) DALAM MEMBACA PERMULAAN SISWA KELAS II SDN 004 BATURIJAL HULU KECAMATAN PERANAP

This research was motivated by the low ability of students to read at the beginning, so the researchers applied the SAS method in order to help students who still had difficulty reading. This study aims to determine the difference between the pretest and posttest by applying the synthetic analytical structural method (SAS) in reading the beginning of grade II elementary school students and to determine the increase in the pretest and posttest in reading the beginning of students. This type of research is a type of pretest-posttest one group pre-experimental design, which is an experiment that is only carried out in one group, without comparison. This research was carried out in class II SDN 004 Baturijal Hulu, Peranap sub-district with a total of 29 students. Based on the research results, it was found that the average value of reading ability before being treated (pretest) was 51.68 while the average value of reading ability after treatment (posttest) was 88.65 and the average value of normality gain was 0.76 which including the high category and the results of hypothesis testing using t-test with t = 47.191 and t table = 2.045, it is concluded that t count> t table, then reject H0 means significant. This means that there is a significant increase in pre-test reading in grade II students between before (pretest) and after (posttest) applying the Synthetic Structural Analytical (SAS) method.

The Effectiveness of Islamic Characters by Approaching Constructivism in Reading Understanding Ability

The purpose of the study of the effectiveness of Islamic character teaching materials with constructivism approach in learning to read comprehension to describe the profile and feasibility of Islamic character teaching materials with constructivism approach in learning to read comprehension ability in seventh grade of secondary school student, the category of pretes and post-test reading comprehension of seventh grade students of Darul Hikmah Pekanbaru, and the effectiveness of the application of Islamic teaching materials with constructivism approach in reading comprehension ability in seventh grade of secondary school student. This study was carried out because of the lack of reading material teaching character of Islamic constructivism approach in reading comprehension ability in seventh grade of secondary school student. This study uses an experimental method that uses 2 treatment groups without a control class. To collect the reading comprehension data the test instrument was used while the data on the feasibility of teaching materials was used a non-test instrument. Analysis of the profile data and the feasibility of teaching materials using thematic analysis and data analysis of reading ability and effectiveness of teaching materials using parametric inferential statistical analysis namely one sample t test and paired sample t test. The conclution of this research are profiles of Islamic teaching materials with constructivism approach are given a provocative title. It contains 35 pages of A4 size, size 11, time new romance, automatic spacing. The subject matter is arranged systematically following the Needham phase in the constructivism approach. Instructional materials with Islamic character with constructivism approach are feasible. The pretest reading comprehension ability is a low category. But the post-test reading comprehension ability is a high category that originates from learning made from Islamic character with constructivism approach. Islamic character teaching material based on constructivism approach is declared effective for reading comprehension ability.

Utilizing the deep Approach to Learning for Developing EFL Higher-order reading skills among Engineering students

Academic reading skills are very vital for university students. This paper aimed at investigating the role of the deep approach to learning in utilizing English ESP higher-order reading skills among engineering students. Sixty three participants from first year students at Benha Faculty of Engineering were randomly assigned into two groups: an experimental group (n=33) and a control group (n=30). Two main instruments were used: an academic reading pre-test, and an academic reading post-test. Quantitative data analyses were conducted. Using T-test to compare the mean scores of the control group and the experimental group in the pre-post application. Results showed that the experimental group students have developed their EFL higher-order reading skills. It was concluded that the “the deep approach to learning” was effective in utilizing ESP higher-order reading skills of the participants. It was also recommended that the deep approach to learning is very effective in developing language learning in general and in developing EFL higher-order reading skills in specific. The deep approach to learning should be integrated into ESP higher-order reading skills approachs.

PENERAPAN METODE PAIRED READING/ PAIRED SUMMARIZING UNTUK MENINGKATKAN KEMAMPUAN PEMAHAMAN MEMBACA TEKS PADA SISWA SMK ABDURRAB PEKANBARU

The purpose of this research is to know the effect of using Paired Reading/ Paired Summarizing on reading in comprehension student at SMK Abdurrab Pekanbaru, especially in Health Analysis department. This research used quasi-experimental method with pretest-posttest control group design. The total sample was 64 students who were divided into two classes, as experimental and control class. In ready ability pre-test reading ability the result showed 68.8% students were in bad category from both experimental and control classes. After conducting an experiment using the Paired Reading / Paired Summarizing learning method with the same teaching material, 12 students (35.3%) were obtained in the good category and 10 students (29.4%) in the very good category from experimental class, while the control class contained only 4 students (11.8%) and 2 students (5.9%) with the same category. The research can be concluded that using Paired Reading/Paired Summarizing on occasional student of Abdurrab Pekanbaru can increase the reading comprehension of student ability.

Literasi Membaca Puisi Guru SD

The purpose of this study is to describe the implementation of poetry reading literacy in elementary schools. The approach used is qualitative and quantitative. The subjects of this study were 22 Silaing Bawah Public Elementary School teachers and 22 Silaing Bawah Public Elementary School teachers. Based on the ability to read poetry obtained the average value of the results of the pre-test reading poetry evaluation of the teachers of SD Negeri 07 Silaing Bawah and SD Negeri 08 Silaing Bawah is 68.33 and is in a pretty good qualification. Whereas the average results of the reading poetry reading the evaluation of the teachers of SD Negeri 07 Silaing Bawah and SD Negeri 08 Silaing Bawah after the training was 78.58 and were in good qualifications. Thus it can be seen that the implementation of poetry reading literacy can improve the ability to read the poetry of the teachers of SD Negeri 07 Silaing Bawah and SD Negeri 08 Silaing Bawah.

برنامج تدريبي في الوعي الصوتي لتنمية بعض مهارات القراءة والکتابة لدى تلاميذ المرحلة الابتدائية الموهوبين ذوي صعوبات التعلم

هدفت الدراسة إلى: تعرف أثر استخدام البرنامج القائم على الوعي الصوتي في تنمية بعض مهارات القراءة والکتابة لدى الموهوبين ذوي صعوبات التعلم. حيث تکونت عينة الدراسة من (10) تلاميذ من تلاميذ الصف الثالث الابتدائي الموهوبين ذوي صعوبات التعلم في العام الدراسي 2017 -2018م، وقد اتبعت الدراسة کلا من المنهجين الوصفي وشبه التجريبي، واستخدمت الدراسة الأدوات الآتية : اختبار مهارات القراءة، واختبار مهارات الکتابة، وکذلک دليل المعلم، والبرنامج القائم على الوعي الصوتي، وقد توصلت الدراسة إلى النتائج الآتية: 1- توجد فروق ذات دلالة إحصائية بين متوسطى درجات تلاميذ المجموعة التجريبية فى التطبيقين القبلي والبعدي لاختبار مهارات القراءة و لاختبار مهارات الکتابة لصالح التطبيق البعدي. 2- توجد فروق ذات دلالة إحصائية بين متوسطى درجات تلاميذ المجموعة التجريبية في التطبيقين القبلي والبعدي في اختبار مهارات القراءة لصالح التطبيق البعدي. 3- توجد فروق ذات دلالة إحصائية بين متوسطى درجات تلاميذ المجموعة التجريبية فى التطبيقين القبلي والبعدي فى اختبار مهارات الکتابة لصالح التطبيق البعدي. وفي ضوء النتائج التالية قدمت الدراسة مجموعة من التوصيات، والبحوث المقترحة. Abstract The study aimed to: Know the effect of using the program based on phonemic awareness in developing some reading and writing skills for gifted people with learning disabilities. Where the study sample consisted of (10) gifted third graders with learning disabilities.` in the 2017-2018 academic year, the study followed both descriptive and quasi-experimental approaches, and the study used the following tools: a test of reading skills, a writing skills test, as well as a guide The teacher and the program based on phonemic awareness. The study reached the following results: 1- There are statistically significant differences between the mean scores of students of the experimental group in the pre and post applications to test reading skills and to test writing skills in favor of post-application. 2- There are significant differences Of statistical differences between the mean scores of the experimental group students in the two applications pre and post test reading skills for post-application. 3- There are statistically significant differences between the mean scores of the experimental group students in the pre and post applications in the writing skills test in favor of post application. In light of the following results, the study presented a set of recommendations and proposed research.

The Effect of Summary Training on Intermediate EFL Learners’ Reading Comprehension in Individual and Collaborative Conditions

Inspired by Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory (SCT), the current study intended to investigate the effect of summary training (i.e., oral and written) on intermediate EFL learners’ reading comprehension in different conditions (i.e., individual and collaborative). Data collection tools and procedures encompassed PET test, First Certificate in English (FCE) reading pre-test, and post-test. First, to ensure that the instruments, scoring, as well as summary training procedures were reliable, the researchers conducted a pilot test. During the main study, 120 Iranian EFL intermediate male and female learners aged from 16-18 were considered as the main participants. Learners were divided into 6 groups (i.e., three individual and three collaborative conditions). Furthermore, each condition included three groups with oral summary, written summary groups, and no summary group. A post-test followed the treatment that lasted for 6 sessions. A series of ANOVA with follow up pair-wise comparisonsand a series of independent-samples t-tests indicated that: (1) summary training, especially the oral one, was more effective in enhancing the EFL learners’ reading comprehension, and (2) members of the collaborative groups outperformed the members of the individual groups regarding their reading comprehension development. The theoretical and practical implications are discussed concerning enhancing the EFL learners’ reading comprehension.