Presumptive Coliform Count Research Articles

Evaluation of the bacteriological quality of underground well water in Oyi local government area of Anambra State, Nigeria

Background: Water is indispensable for man’s existence on earth. In urban and predominantly rural communities in Nigeria, with over 85% of the population living below an average income, traditional drinking water sources such as open reservoirs, springs and open wells are still being used. The study assessed the bacteriological qualities of underground well water in Oyi L.G.A of Anambra State. Methods: Water samples collected by random sampling from various wells in the selected thirteen (13) wards of the study area were subjected to bacteriological analysis using standard methods. The bacteriological analysis examined differential and presumptive coliform counts. Confirmatory coliform tests were carried out using a loopful of presumptive positive and negative tests already sub-cultured on MacConkey agar plate and incubated at 37 0c for 24 hours to obtain bacterial isolates. Results: Escherichia coli was the most frequently occurring isolate of all the bacteria identified. Other isolates include Streptococcus spp., Staphylococcus aureus, Shigella spp., Enterococcus spp., Salmonella spp., Pseudomonas spp., Proteus spp. and Bacillus spp. The majority of these organisms are Gram-negative microorganisms which are most times implicated in gastrointestinal abnormalities. Conclusions: There is a high incidence of contamination of well waters by pathogenic organisms in most well waters from the Study area. Underground well water sources to be utilized for domestic purposes such as cooking should be treated or disinfected before use, either by boiling and filtration or by chemical sterilization or a combination of both.

Bacteriological Analysis of Household Water at the Source and Point of Consumption at Karwar, India

Access to safe drinking water is the key to promoting good health. At Karwar, the primary source of drinking water is well, but heavy rain, and deficiencies in underground drainage systems result in well water contamination. However, water handling practices followed at the point of consumption act as a better predictor of water contamination. To assess and compare the bacteriological quality of household water at the source and point of consumption. A prospective cross-sectional study was conducted at Karwar. Households owning private wells were selected by Simple Random Sampling. Semi-structured questionnaires were used to interview the households regarding socioeconomic status (SES), chlorination of well, purification method, and water handling practices. Presumptive coliform count and the differential coliform count were determined. Data thus obtained were analyzed using a Microsoft Excel. c2-test was used to see the association between variables. The present study included 30 households. All the samples taken from the well revealed contamination with E. coli. 80% of samples from the point of consumption revealed coliforms, among which 47% were confirmed with E. coli. RO/RO+UV were found to be relatively better performing than the filtration and boiling methods. Contamination of water at the point of consumption had a significant association with both purification and water retrieval methods. The samples taken from the point of consumption reflect better quality of water sampling than source water. The present study revealed post-collection contamination as major reason for compromising water quality despite improved water cleaning and purification techniques.

Diarrhoeal diseases and its relation to WaSH practices and MPN count among under-five children residing in Resettlement colony, Delhi

Background: Globally, diarrhoeal diseases are the second leading cause of death among under 5 children and India alone accounts for 100,000 lives annually, third highest in the world. In low and middle-income countries, contaminated water has been the major source of diarrhoeal diseases and lack of improper WaSH (Water, Sanitation and Hygiene) practices accounts for 90% of the total death. Aims and Objective: To find out the burden of diarrhoea and its relation to WASH practices among children and mothers/care givers and Presumptive Coliform count of drinking water. Materials and Methods: A community-based cross-sectional study conducted in Resettlement colony, Delhi. A total of 553 under 5 children were studied after attaining consent from mothers/care givers. MPN count per 100 ml was measured from drinking water storage vessel. Result: Prevalence of diarrhoea was found to be 40.70%, being higher among children aged between 13-24 months (57.3%). Out of the total water samples, 37% of samples were unsatisfactory, 36% suspicious and 22% satisfactory. None of the samples were found to be satisfactory. Lack of WaSH practices was observed among mother/care givers. Conclusion: Understanding the factors influencing the occurrence of diarrhoeal diseases and drinking water quality will help reduce the burden of diarrhoeal diseases.

Gamma radiation treatment to ensure microbial safety of ready to bake (RTB) vegetable toppings/ fillers and retain their nutritional qualities during cold storage

Limited shelf life due to processing associated microbial contamination is one of the major challenging issues with minimally processed ‘Ready to Bake’ (RTB) vegetable products leading to huge post-processing losses. In the current study, three minimally processed vegetables, i.e. tomato, bell pepper and white onion, which are widely used in fast food industries (FFI), such as pizza and burger as well as in households; were studied for their post-processing microbiological profile; and to assess the effect of gamma radiation treatment (0.5–5 kGy) to maintain hygiene during extended storage at low temperature. Prior to radiation treatment, the minimally processed vegetables were packed in low density polyethylene bags (thickness: 50 μm) which is suitable for such agri-produce and compatible to gamma radiation treatment (USA, FDA). Besides, vacuum packaging in multilayered LDPE bags was optimized for shredded onion. Except tomato, which did not contain any detectable presumptive coliform or yeast and mold on day 0, the other two cut vegetables were found to have higher load of microbes, i.e., more than 4.0 log CFUg−1 of total aerobic plate count, 3.0 log CFUg−1of each of yeast and mold counts (YMC) and presumptive coliform (PC) counts. In the radiation treated (2 kGy) vegetables, no PC was detected; even after 20 days of storage; whereas, in the untreated bell pepper, tomato and onion samples PC counts were found to be 4.3 ± 0.1, 3.7 ± 0.2 and 1.7 ± 0.3 log CFUg−1 respectively on day 20 of storage. The data indicated that, the total aerobic plate counts in the 2 kGy irradiated samples were below the permissible limit as per the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) guidelines. Organoleptic attributes (‘colour’, ‘texture’, ‘flavour’, ‘taste’ and ‘overall acceptability’) of the radiation treated products were found to be well retained even on 20 days of storage. The nutritional adequacy of these products in terms of total energy, fat, protein, carbohydrate, minerals and vitamin content was found to be well retained till the end of the 20 days' storage period. Findings of the study thus establish the efficacy of gamma radiation treatment in ensuring the safety and quality of minimally processed vegetables for their use in FFI as well as domestic kitchens.

Outbreak of enteric fever: a fact finding mission

Background: In September 2019, a large number of fever cases among troops and families in a military station in Maharashtra were admitted to the local Military Hospital. Detailed epidemiological investigations revealed the cause to be an outbreak of enteric fever due to sewage contamination of drinking water.Methods: A detailed site survey was undertaken; and a descriptive epidemiological study was carried out. Routine haemogram, blood culture, antibiotic sensitivity test besides serotyping of the isolates were carried out.Results: In all 28 cases who fulfilled the case definition criteria were admitted in the month of September 2019. Out of these 21 (75%) were confirmed by blood culture, while the remaining were probable cases. Bacteriological examination reports of water samples taken from various source as well as consumer end points both prior to beginning of the outbreak and during the outbreak revealed a high presumptive coliform count. Spatial and temporal clustering of cases was suggestive of common source outbreak. On 16 September 2019 exploration by digging was carried out undertaken which revealed massive leakage of water in close proximity to the overflowing manholes. The outbreak was promptly controlled after detection of this pipeline and provision of alternative source of water supply to the affected area.Conclusions: Salmonella enterica serovar typhi has been implicated in many outbreaks through history. The present outbreak was a common source focal outbreak due to sewage contamination of drinking water in a few areas in the station.

Water quality of some water sources in Igarra and the environs in Akoko - Edo, Southern Nigeria

Evaluation of the physico-chemical and microbiological characteristics of selected water sources from Igarra and environs in Akoko-Edo, Nigeria was carried out using standard methods. The results obtained for some of the parameters investigated were in the following range: pH (4.2 - 6.8), turbidity (0.01 – 0.75 NTU), conductivity (7.2 – 196.0 μScm-1 ), dissolved oxygen (3.2 – 29.2 mgL-1 ), biochemical oxygen demand (0.0 – 25.6 mgL-1), chloride (10.23 – 106.36 mgL-1 ), calcium (0.0 – 80.88 mgL-1 ), sulphate (0.0 – 7.35 mgL-1 ), nitrate (0.01 – 8.91mgL--1), copper (0.01 – 1.03 mgL-1 ), zinc (0.0 – 1.43 mgL-1 ), Iron (0.02 – 2.30 mgL-1 ) and lead (0.0 – 0.33 mgL -1). All samples harboured coliform organisms in numbers that exceeded the WHO standard for drinking water. Ranges of total heterotrophic bacteria (THB) count was 1.0 x 103 - 1.3 x 104 cfuml-1 ; total heterotrophic fungi (THF) count 1.0 x 103 - 9.0 x 103 cfuml-1 ; presumptive coliform count 0 - 2.9 MPN 100 ml-1 and Escherichia coli 0 - 2.7 MPN 100 ml-1 . This study revealed that magnesium hardness, microbial contamination, and acidity of the water sources which resulted in corrosivity of the water are some of the indicator parameters for Akoko-Edo water quality; and therefore concluded that the water sources were unsuitable for human consumption. Adequate and appropriate treatment of the water prior to consumption to maintain good public health is therefore recommended.Keywords: Water Quality, Public Health, Coliform, Hardness, Corrosivity

A study of isolation and identification of bacteria from lake water in and around Udaipur, Rajasthan.

Introduction:Water is an essential nutrient which plays an important role in digestion, absorption of food and elimination of waste products by urine. Udaipur also known as ‘City of Lakes’ or even the ‘Venice of East’ due to its unique and beautiful lake system has an exceptional importance at national and international levels. The aquatic systems are mostly dominated by bacteria and fungi and in the natural environments micro-organisms have very specific roles with regard to the recycling of materials and purification of water. Presence of coliform bacteria in the water indicates the fecal pollution of water.Methods:Water from all the three lakes were included for the assessment of their water quality parameters. Biological parameters like MPN of coliforms and presence of bacterial and cyanobacterial contaminants were read. The MPN (Most Probable Number) of Coliform was determined by the Presumptive Coliform Count (Multiple Tube Method) in 100 ml of sample water.Conclusion:The coliform bacteria is the primary bacterial indicator for fecal pollution in water. The purpose of study was to make people aware about the bacterial load in water bodies. Based on this, categorical representation of water was unacceptable for the purpose of swimming and bathing.

Bacteriological quality of water samples from Kochi, Southwest Coastal India and its implications

BACKGROUND: Coliforms and other bacterial indicators are known to be present in Community water samples causing faecal pollution of water. There is also a growing body of evidence demonstrating that the aquatic environmental microbes are drug resistant. OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to evaluate the microbial quality of the water from tap, well and pond in urban households of Kochi, Kerala state. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A total of 100 water samples (46 from well water, 45 from tap water and 9 from lakes and ponds) were analysed by the multiple fermentation tube method to determine the presumptive coliform count or the most probable number (MPN) of coliforms, and the isolates were identified using standard procedures, followed by susceptibility testing. RESULTS: Eighty samples were positive for growth (76 grew coliforms, four samples grew non-pathogens). A total of 105 coliform isolates were grown in culture. The MPN numbers were noted to be >100 for over 50% of all the samples (n = 56), thus making the water unsatisfactory for drinking purposes. The highest number of organism isolated was Klebsiella pneumonia (n = 55), followed by Enterobacter spp (n = 34) and Escherichia coli (n = 16). Well water had the highest proportion of all three of these organisms. Up to 26%–40% resistance was seen to amoxicillin–clavulanic acid and 5.4%–5.8% of resistance was noted to third-generation cephalosporins, while two isolates were extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing Enterobacteriaceae (CTX-M and TEM types). CONCLUSION: The city municipal water authorities need to adopt more aggressive treatment/disinfection practices to combat high coliform contamination. The bacteriological quality of well water at the source needs to be monitored. Meanwhile, continued adequate home purification is suggested for drinking water. The city water does not pose a threat of antibiotic resistance for now. Environmental sampling should be given equal priority as clinical sampling in the coming days.

8 THE HERITABILITY OF FEAR CONDITIONING AS A MODEL FOR ANXIETY DISORDER AND TREATMENT RESPONSE

Limited shelf life due to processing associated microbial contamination is one of the major challenging issues with minimally processed ‘Ready to Bake’ (RTB) vegetable products leading to huge post-processing losses. In the current study, three minimally processed vegetables, i.e. tomato, bell pepper and white onion, which are widely used in fast food industries (FFI), such as pizza and burger as well as in households; were studied for their post-processing microbiological profile; and to assess the effect of gamma radiation treatment (0.5–5 kGy) to maintain hygiene during extended storage at low temperature. Prior to radiation treatment, the minimally processed vegetables were packed in low density polyethylene bags (thickness: 50 μm) which is suitable for such agri-produce and compatible to gamma radiation treatment (USA, FDA). Besides, vacuum packaging in multilayered LDPE bags was optimized for shredded onion. Except tomato, which did not contain any detectable presumptive coliform or yeast and mold on day 0, the other two cut vegetables were found to have higher load of microbes, i.e., more than 4.0 log CFUg−1 of total aerobic plate count, 3.0 log CFUg−1of each of yeast and mold counts (YMC) and presumptive coliform (PC) counts. In the radiation treated (2 kGy) vegetables, no PC was detected; even after 20 days of storage; whereas, in the untreated bell pepper, tomato and onion samples PC counts were found to be 4.3 ± 0.1, 3.7 ± 0.2 and 1.7 ± 0.3 log CFUg−1 respectively on day 20 of storage. The data indicated that, the total aerobic plate counts in the 2 kGy irradiated samples were below the permissible limit as per the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) guidelines. Organoleptic attributes (‘colour’, ‘texture’, ‘flavour’, ‘taste’ and ‘overall acceptability’) of the radiation treated products were found to be well retained even on 20 days of storage. The nutritional adequacy of these products in terms of total energy, fat, protein, carbohydrate, minerals and vitamin content was found to be well retained till the end of the 20 days' storage period. Findings of the study thus establish the efficacy of gamma radiation treatment in ensuring the safety and quality of minimally processed vegetables for their use in FFI as well as domestic kitchens.

Determination of Bacterial contamination from Well water

Background: Water is one of the most basic needs of life. 90% of the groundwater accounts for the world’s freshwater resources, used for irrigation, industry, and human consumption. Well water is considered as the sole source of drinking water in many regions. The water should be checked regularly to determine bacterial contamination in order to prevent water born bacterial diseases. This study was performed to evaluate the microbial quality of the water from the wells used for drinking purpose. Method: In this cross-sectional study, twenty water samples from ten different wells around the agricultural area were collected in a 200ml capacity sterile container, transported to the laboratory and examined for presumptive coliforms by multiple fermentation tube test. The presumptive coliform count per 100 ml of water was determined using the probability table. Bacteria were then identified using conventional methods. Results: All samples were contaminated with bacteria, and the most predominant bacteria isolated were Klebsiella pneumoniae (40%), followed by Pseudomonas aeruginosa (26%) and E.coli (13%). Of the ten wells tested, seven well water samples were found to be excellent, one satisfactory and two were unsatisfactory. No pathogenic bacteria were seen in any of the samples. Conclusion: Before consumption of water, it should be adequately boiled, or filtered to prevent the incidence of water-borne diseases. Regular screening for bacterial contaminants is necessary in reducing the contamination and supplying safe drinking water.

Assessment of commercially packaged water for faecal bacterial indicators in Kano metropolis and its environs

A total of 60 commercially packaged drinking water comprising of 48 sachet and 12 bottled water samples were randomly collected and tested for bacterial indicators of fecal contamination. Escherichia coli type 1, Streptococcus fecalis and Clostridium perfringes were used as indices to evaluate potability, using Presumptive and Differential Coliform Counts. The results obtained were analyzed using McCrady's Statistical Table of Probability to ascertain the Most Probable Number (MPN) of Coliform organisms per 100mls of the water. Of the 48 sachet water analyzed, 2 (4.2%) were positive for Presumptive Coliform Count (PCC) with the first and second water samples showing a count of 160 MPN/l00mls and 30MPN/100mls respectively. All the bottled water analyzed were negative for PCC. Since the need for consumption of packaged water cannot be underestimated, it is of great necessity that the waters are properly treated in order to meet the bacteriological Standards for Potable drinking water. Key words: Packaged water, Bacterial Indicator, Kano metropolis.

Assessment of Presence of Heavy Metals and Other Pollution Burden Parameters and Their Effect on Water Quality in Benin City, Edo State

An assessment of the heavy metal content and biological pollution burden of an abattoir dumpsite, an automobile carwash, the Ikpoba River, and a private water borehole located near the abattoir dumpsite was conducted in Benin City in Southern Nigeria, during the rainy and dry seasons. The water samples’ pH was lower than the permissible values, with the river water displaying color and possessing a slight odor. Iron concentrations exceeded the permissible limits for drinking water at all four of the sampling stations in the study area, although not in samples collected from the control station, station 5, a public water borehole that is located some distance away. Lead values were higher than drinking water standards in the samples collected from stations 1 through 4, with some exceptions during the rainy season. Copper, nickel, arsenic, chromium, and aluminum were detected in three out of the four sampling stations located within the study area. However, these metals were detected at levels that were within regulatory limits. The detection of three metals (iron, lead, and zinc) within the study area at levels exceeding drinking water limits suggested that a complete cycle of movement of pollutants into the sampling stations had occurred. Significant biological presences were also detected, as the Ikpoba River water had a standard plate count (SPC) of 130 most probable number (MPN) and a 22 MPN presumptive coliform count (PCC) or 22 MPN. However, Escherichia coli (E. coli) confirmatory tests recorded less than 2 MPN in both seasons. The study has shown that the quality of water in the river may be compromised by effluent discharges from the dumpsite and the carwash channel. Therefore, this situation requires more stringent enforcement of local environmental laws and maintenance of safe distances between domestic and industrial waste sources and domestic or private water wells.

Epidemiological investigation of an outbreak of typhoid fever in Jorhat town of Assam, India.

Background & objectives:Typhoid fever is a global health problem and is also endemic in India. An outbreak of fever occurred in January 2014 in Jorhat Town in Assam, India. Here we report the results of an investigation done to find out the aetiology and source of the outbreak.Methods:The affected areas were visited on January 23, 2014 by a team of Jorhat district Integrated Disease Surveillance Project personnel. A total of 13 blood samples from patients with fever as first symptom and six water samples were collected from the affected areas. The blood samples were cultured and isolates were identified using standard biochemical tests. Isolates were also tested for antimicrobial sensitivity. Widal test was performed on 10 of the 13 blood samples collected. Sanitary survey was carried out to find any leakage in the water supply and also the sewage system of the Jorhat town.Results:Blood culture yielded Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi in six (46.15%) patients whereas Widal test was positive in 10 (76.9%) of 13 patients. Water culture showed presumptive coliform count of >180/100 ml in two out of the six samples tested. Salmonella Typhi was also isolated from water culture of these two samples. Sanitary survey carried out in the affected places showed that the water supply pipes of urban water supply were in close proximity to the sewage drainage system and there were few leakages.Interpretation & conclusions:The outbreak occurred due to S. Typhi contaminating the water supply. Sanitation and immunization are the two most important components to be stressed to prevent such outbreaks.

Bacteriological analysis of the drinking water from different schools in Northern India: A concern in developing countries

Introduction: Potable water is an essential ingredient for good health and the socio-economic development of man. In developing countries, biological contamination of drinking water is a major concern for public health authorities. According to the World Health Organization, approximately 5% of all deaths in these countries are directly related to water diseases resulting from poor quality of drinking water and lack of hygiene and sanitation. Material and methods: The aim of this study was to determine the water quality of reservoirs at schools in district Amritsar. A total of 903 drinking water samples were collected from various water sources in different schools and the samples were analyzed to assess bacteriological quality of water for presumptive coliform count by multiple tube test. Results: A total of 39.8% (360/903) samples from various sources were found to be unfit for human consumption. Of the total 360 unsatisfactory samples, 189 were from submersible pumps, 97 were from taps of piped supply (domestic / public), 48 from hand pumps and 26 were from various other sources. Conclusion: It is therefore important to determine the quality, microbial diversity from water sources consumed by the people, especially used by children, because they are vulnerable to different kinds of diseases since their immune systems are still developing. Bacteriological assessment of all water sources for drinking should be planned and conducted on regular basis to prevent water borne dissemination of diseases.

Assessment of bacteriological quality of drinking water from various sources in Amritsar district of northern India.

Safe water is a precondition for health and development and is a basic human right, yet it is still denied to hundreds of millions of people throughout the developing world. Water-related diseases caused by insufficient safe water supplies, coupled with poor sanitation and hygiene, cause 3.4 million deaths a year, mostly in children. The present study was conducted on 1,317 drinking water samples from various water sources in Amritsar district in northern India. All the samples were analyzed to assess bacteriological quality of water for presumptive coliform count by the multiple tube test. A total of 42.9% (565/1,317) samples from various sources were found to be unfit for human consumption. Of the total 565 unsatisfactory samples, 253 were from submersible pumps, 197 were from taps of piped supply (domestic/public), 79 were from hand pumps, and 36 were from various other sources A significantly high level of contamination was observed in samples collected from submersible pumps (47.6%) and water tanks (47.3%), as these sources of water are more exposed and liable to contamination. Despite continuous efforts by the government, civil society, and the international community, over a billion people still do not have access to improved water resources. Bacteriological assessment of all sources of drinking should be planned and conducted on regular basis to prevent waterborne dissemination of diseases.

Physicochemical and Bacteriological Analyses of Well Water in Abeokuta Metropolis, Ogun –State, Nigeria

Physico-chemical and Microbial analyses were carried out on fifteen well waters in Abeokuta. The ranges of the result obtained are temperature ( 27.1 o C-27.6 o C); colour (5-10HU) ; Turbidity (1.05 -6.78 NTU ) ;pH (5.19-7.47 ).The odour was unobjectionable for samples 1,2,3 , 11,12,13,14,and 15 , others were objectionable. Sample 3 had the highest observed value for acidity (1.00mg/l). The values observed for total hardness and chloride ranged between 39-137mg/land 44-298mg/l respectively. All the samples had no alkalinity, iron and chloride residues, traces of Nitrite was observed. The total viable counts for all the water samples exceeded the standard limit of 1.0 x 10 5 cfu/ml, the presumptive coliform counts, ranged between 10 x105cfu/ml and 60 x105cfu/ml, the total coliform count also ranged from 10 to 20 x10 5 cfu/ml. All the water sample showed high concentration of Escharichia coli,this exceed the standard limit of zero 14 .The isolated identified were, Escharichia coli, Pseudomonas spieces, Bacillus subtilis, Klebsiella species and Entrobacter species. The observations indicate that the water in these wells are not fit for consumption except they are

English

The quality of potable water and treatment of waterborne diseases are critical public health issues. Bacterial contamination of drinking water sources is the most common health risk. The research determines bacteriological quality of drinking water sources in Serbo town, south west Ethiopia. A Cross-sectional study design on bacteriological analysis of drinking water was conducted in Serbo town from September to October, 2010. 100 ml of water specimen was collected from each water sources and transported for testing to the department of medical laboratory sciences and pathology laboratory by cold chain. The water samples were tested using the multiple tube technique on OXOID MacConkey Broth, (Oxoid Ltd, Basingstoke, Hampshire, England) for presumptive coliform count followed by Escherichia coli confirmation. A total of twenty four drinking water samples were analyzed. Eighteen (75%) were from unprotected wells and the remaining six (25%) were from protected wells. Twenty three out of the total (87.5%) have presumptive bacteria count above the permissible limits for drinking water. Majority of the water sources were not safe for drinking. Hence, regular disinfection of drinking water sources needs to be run. Key words: Potable water, most probable number, fecal coliform, protected well and unprotected well.

Investigation of an epidemic of Hepatitis E in Nellore in south India

To determine the incidence of acute hepatitis because of hepatitis E virus (HEV) and the source of the epidemic in Nellore in south India in 2008. Anti-HEV IgM ELISA and RT-PCR for HEV-RNA were carried out on blood and stool samples from patients with acute hepatitis presenting to different hospitals in the city. The city was divided into 33 clusters, and 20 families from each cluster were systematically interviewed to determine the incidence of hepatitis E in the city. The survey was conducted on 2685 residents of 673 households from 24th November to 4th December 2008. The overall incidence of hepatitis was 5.7% (152/2685), i.e. an estimated 23,915 persons in the city were affected. There were two deaths because of acute hepatitis in the population surveyed translating to an estimated 315 deaths. Men had higher attack rates than women (7.8%vs. 3.5%) and young adults compared to children under 5 years (6.9%vs. 2.9%). Families drinking water from the pumping station at Bujjamarevu had the highest attack rate of 54.5% (39.8-69.2%). HEV IgM antibodies were present in 80/100 plasma samples tested. HEV-RNA was detected in 43/100 individuals tested, and isolates were characterized as genotype 1 by sequencing. Sewage draining into the river close to the pumping stations and broken pipelines crossing sewage drains may have triggered this large outbreak.

It'll be fine with a bit of ice and lemon

The presumptive coliform count, the classic foundation of water testing, has long been supplanted by more sophisticated membrane filtration and most-probable-number tests. Yet these modern versions of the traditional technique are still based on the idea of distinguishing between water containing coliforms, which should not be consumed, and water lacking them, which is probably safe. Although Escherichia coli dies out in a watery environment outside the body, it does not die more quickly than bacterial pathogens.

Microbial decontamination of medicinally important herbals using gamma radiation and their biochemical characterisation

Abstract A comprehensive study was carried out to assess the microbiological and biochemical characteristics of four herbals, namely, rose (Rosa centifolia), guggul (Commiphora mukul), chirata (Swertia chirayita), gulvel (Tinospora cordifolia) and four herbal formulations rasayan, shatpatryadi, scrub and kashayam. Total aerobic plate count (TAPC) was in the range of 3–7 log cfu/g, whereas, presumptive coliform count in many of these samples was in the range 2–6 log cfu/g. The IMViC (indole, methyl red, Voges-Proskauer, citrate) analysis and molecular characterisation (16S rDNA sequencing) ascertained the presence of Escherichia coli in some of the samples. A gamma radiation dose of up to 10 kGy was found to be sufficient for complete microbial decontamination without affecting the bioactive properties of herbal formulations, including antioxidant potential, which was high in rasayan, shatpatryadi, scrub, rose, and guggul. The antioxidant property of these herbals could be attributed to components such as phenolics, flavonoids and colour pigments.