Press Forging Research Articles

Quantitative Characterization of the Perforation Behaviour of Direct Recycled Aluminum Alloy 6061 Plates Subjected to High-Velocity Impact

This study aims to establish the perforation behaviour of direct recycled AA6061 to help establish the properties of the current most optimized direct recycled AA6061 through the hot press forging technique. This was achieved by subjecting direct recycled AA6061 plates of varying thickness to high-velocity impacts using a single-stage gas gun setup. The impactor is a hemispherical steel projectile of 13mm in length and 8.5mm in diameter. Plates of 3,4,5 and 10mm thickness were tested at velocities ranging from 120 m/s to 402 m/s. The deformation profiles of the impacted plates were captured and analyzed to quantitatively establish the perforation behaviour of recycled AA6061 plates. The plates showed irregular and non-axis symmetric patterns of deformation hinting the material exhibits anisotropic properties. The changes in the deformation profile were investigated in relation to changes in impact velocities and plate thickness were made to understand how they impact the profile. The deformation area was observed to be decreasing when the bullet impact velocity was increased. Higher velocity impact events lead to more material ejection from the plate in the form of fragmentation. Additionally, the deformation zone was observed to be getting smaller with an increase in the thickness of the plate. Thicker plates were found to have more fragmentation compared to thinner plates. Ductile failure characteristics such as petal formation and plugging were observed along with brittle characteristics such as fragmentation and conal fractures. Lower-velocity impacts lead to more energy absorbed by the target plates. Thicker plates observed more of the bullet’s energy. Through experimentation, the deformation behaviour of the directly recycled AA6061 material was established. This data can be used as a base for further research into the material’s behaviour characterisation.

Optimizing strength of directly recycled aluminum chip-based parts through a hybrid RSM-GA-ANN approach in sustainable hot forging.

Direct recycling of aluminum waste is crucial in sustainable manufacturing to mitigate environmental impact and conserve resources. This work was carried out to study the application of hot press forging (HPF) in recycling AA6061 aluminum chip waste, aiming to optimize operating factors using Response Surface Methodology (RSM), Artificial Neural Network (ANN) and Genetic algorithm (GA) strategy to maximize the strength of recycled parts. The experimental runs were designed using Full factorial and RSM via Minitab 21 software. RSM-ANN models were employed to examine the effect of factors and their interactions on response and to predict output, while GA-RSM and GA-ANN were used for optimization. The chips of different morphology were cold compressed into billet form and then hot forged. The effect of varying forging temperature (Tp, 450-550°C), holding time (HT, 60-120 minutes), and chip surface area to volume ratio (AS:V, 15.4-52.6 mm2/mm3) on ultimate tensile strength (UTS) was examined. Maximum UTS (237.4 MPa) was achieved at 550°C, 120 minutes and 15.4 mm2/mm3 of chip's AS: V. The Tp had the largest contributing effect ratio on the UTS, followed by HT and AS:V according to ANOVA analysis. The proposed optimization process suggested 550°C, 60 minutes, and 15.4 mm2 as the optimal condition yielding the maximum UTS. The developed models' evaluation results showed that ANN (with MSE = 1.48%) outperformed RSM model. Overall, the study promotes sustainable production by demonstrating the potential of integrating RSM and ML to optimize complex manufacturing processes and improve product quality.

Life cycle assessment of direct recycling hot press forging of aluminium AA7075 metal matrix composite

The primary objective of this research is to investigate the process of direct recycling of AA7075 aluminium alloy, which is extensively utilised in the aerospace and flight sectors due to its exceptional strength and lightweight characteristics. Alumina (Al2O3) is used as a reinforcing agent and the effect of hot press forging (HPF) parameters on the mechanical characteristics and surface integrity of the metal matrix composite (MMC) constructed of AA7075 alloy with 1% Al2O3 has been studied. Furthermore, the utilisation of an integrated life cycle assessment (LCA) approach is implemented to assess the environmental impacts and economic expenses associated with the recycling of aluminium via high-pressure forming for both the metal matrix composite and AA7075 alloy. Response surface methodology (RSM) is applied to ascertain the optimal parameters for high-performance filtration. The findings suggest that employing a forging temperature of 532.34 °C and a holding time of 60 min produces favourable results. When comparing the characteristics of the MMC and recycled aluminium, it can be observed that they both demonstrate similar essential process attributes. The utilisation of HPF in conjunction with the Multi-Material Composite has the potential to yield a reduction of up to 24.97% in Global Warming Potential (GWP). This research demonstrates the efficacy of HPF as a viable approach for environmentally conscious and economically efficient recycling of AA7075 aluminium scrap, thereby improving product performance and promoting sustainability.

High-Velocity Impact Penetration Behavior of Recycled Aluminum Alloy 6061: A Brief Look

Aluminum demand is projected to increase in the future. To help meet the demand, recycling aluminum has been employed for quite some time. Conventional recycling of aluminum leads to CO2 and greenhouse gas emissions. Therefore, direct recycling techniques such as hot press forging are being used and researched to provide an alternate recycling route that leads to even lower emissions, material losses, and energy consumption. The recycled aluminum 6061 alloy obtained from hot press forging is relatively new. Hence, not much is known about its capabilities and properties, including its impact penetration behavior. In this study, recycled 6061 aluminum alloy plates of 5 mm obtained through hot press forging are used in high-velocity impact tests using a single-stage gas gun to test the material’s penetration behavior. Two tests are carried out at velocities ranging from 141 to 308 m/s, all resulting in full penetration. The material was observed to have decent energy absorption capabilities, ranging from 70% to 81%. The penetration behavior, however erratic, shows signs of both ductile and brittle failure modes.

Strengthening behaviour of forged in-situ developed magnesium composites

ABSTRACT Mg alloys/composites can fulfil evolving needs of the automotive industry. Mg-based in-situ developed metal matrix nano-composites (MMnCs) are not researched well. In the present study, Mg-based hybrid MMnCs have been developed by in-situ reinforcement of MgO and CeO2 particles through the stir casting process. The minimum reinforcement size has been confirmed as 20 nm during transmission electron microscopy (TEM). MMnCs were subjected to high-temperature press forging. Thus,significantly reducing porosity. The evolved texture, mechanical properties were evaluated near the central and peripheral regions of the forged disk. Fractography was carried out to confirm the nature of the fracture. The Central region of disk showed better mechanical properties than peripheral region. The dominant presence of basal texture near the peripheral area led to tensile twinning and, thus, prominent strain hardening during compression. Further, strengthening mechanisms were used to predict the yield strength. It is found that Taylor’s strengthening is the dominant strengthening mechanism.

Effect of Direct Recycling Hot Press Forging Parameters on Mechanical Properties and Surface Integrity of AA7075 Aluminum Alloys

The current practice in aluminum recycling plants is to change the waste into molten metal through the conventional recycling (CR) manufacturing process. However, the CR technique is so energy-intensive that it also poses an indirect threat to the environment. This paper presents a study on meltless direct recycling hot press forging (DR-HPF) as an alternative sustainable approach that has fewer steps with low energy consumption, as well as preventing the generation of new waste. A laboratory experiment was conducted to study the mechanical properties and surface integrity of AA7075 aluminum alloy by employing a hot press forging (HPF) process under different temperatures (380, 430, and 480 °C) and holding times (0, 60, and 120 min). It was found that as the parameter increased, there was a positive increase in ultimate tensile strength (UTS), elongation to failure (ETF), density, and microhardness. The recycled chips exhibit the best mechanical properties at the highest parameters (480 °C and 120 min), whereas the UTS = 245.62 MPa and ETF = 6.91%, while surface integrity shows that the calculated microhardness and density are 69.02 HV and 2.795 g/cm3, respectively. The UTS result shows that the highest parameters of 480 °C and 120 min are comparable with the Aerospace Specification Metals (ASM) Aluminum AA7075-O standard. This study is a guide for machinists and the manufacturing industry to increase industry sustainability, to preserve the earth for future generations.

Optimization of Heat Treatment Scheduling for Hot Press Forging Using Data-Driven Models

Scheduling heat treatment jobs in a hot press forging factory involves forming batches of multiple workpieces for the given furnaces, determining the start time of heating each batch, and sorting out the order of cooling the heated workpieces. Among these, forming batches is particularly difficult because of the various constraints that must be satisfied. This paper proposes an optimization method based on an evolutionary algorithm to search for a heat treatment schedule of maximum productivity with minimum energy cost, satisfying various constraints imposed on the batches. Our method encodes a candidate solution as a permutation of heat treatment jobs and decodes it such that the jobs are grouped into batches satisfying all constraints. Each candidate schedule is evaluated by simulating the heating and cooling processes using cost models for processing time and energy consumption, which are learned from historical process data. Simulation experiments reveal that the schedules built using the proposed method achieve higher productivity with lower energy costs than those built by human experts.

Mechanical Properties of Direct Recycling Metal Matrix Composite (MMC-AlR) AA7075 Aircraft Aluminium Alloy

Recycling of aluminium aerospace alloys represents a major challenge to both the aluminium and aerospace industries. Ecological manageability in assembling is these days is a dire and exceptional issue and the principle concerns are identified with increasingly proficient utilization of energy and materials. Recycling allowed saving large amount greenhouse gas emission, particularly in the case of aluminium. Metal matrix composites spur the possibility of advancing typical monolithic material properties. Offering great strength, lightweight and being able to withstand high temperatures are the main behaviours of the metal matrix composite. To that extent, many practitioners in either automotive or aerospace industries employed metal matrix composite in most of the critical parts. Forming metal matrix composite via solid state processing is considered innovative, as most of the metal matrix composite forming process took place either in liquid or gaseous processing. An experimental investigation was conducted to investigate the mechanical properties of a recycled aluminiumshiftingaluminasumfrom1to5wt.%thathadbeenpresentedtorecycled aluminium chip employing hot press forging. Aluminium chip was obtained by milling AA7075-T1 bulk to a certain parameter. The medium size chips were cleaned, dried and mixed with alumina particles before being poured into a closed-die mould. The main responses investigated were ultimate tensile strength and elongation to failure and microstructure analysis. Out of all fractions, 4 wt. % of alumina shows the highest Ultimate tensile strength when the value increased from 155.214MPa (1wt.%) to 187.183MPa. Further addition of alumina would enhance the composite strength, but in contrary, it also could prone the material performance.

Ti-5al-5v-5mo-3cr-1zr (Ti-55531) Alloy with Excellent Mechanical Properties Manipulated by Spark Plasma Sintering Combined with In-Situ Press Forging and In-Situ Aging

Ti-5al-5v-5mo-3cr-1zr (Ti-55531) Alloy with Excellent Mechanical Properties Manipulated by Spark Plasma Sintering Combined with In-Situ Press Forging and In-Situ Aging

Bimorphic microstructure in Ti-6Al-4V alloy manipulated by spark plasma sintering and in-situ press forging

We report on a methodology of powder sintering and in-situ press forging, which can be used to manipulate a new bimorphic microstructure in Ti-6Al-4V alloy. The microstructure contains typical triangle colonies with ultrafine lamellar α and β, and their border areas with ultrafine equiaxed α, dispersed nano/ultrafine β, as well as α/β interface L layers. Surprisingly, the bimorphic alloy exhibits excellent mechanical properties under both tensile and compressive conditions, far superior to other Ti-6Al-4V alloys and their composites reported so far. Therefore, this innovative methodology provides a simple and economical method for preparing high-performance metallic alloys in structural applications.

Determination of upset ingot dimensions during computer-aided forging design under fuzzy goals

The paper describes an algorithm for determining reasonable dimensions of an upset ingot during computer-aided design of shaft press-forging under fuzzy goals. Fuzzy goals related to product metal elaboration quality and the complexity of its manufacture are formulated. Objective values of a design parameter for each goal are determined. Membership functions for possible solutions corresponding to these goals and the rule of choosing the most reasonable solution are constructed. Two examples of solving the problem depending on the selected goals are given. The proposed algorithm allows one to choose the most reasonable solution from a set of feasible ones and reduces human participation in the computer-aided design process. The developed approach can be applied to solving other problems of press forging, such as choosing an ingot, determining the necessity of the billet upset operation, determining the cogged billet dimensions, etc.

Multiresponse Optimization and Environmental Analysis in Direct Recycling Hot Press Forging of Aluminum AA6061.

Ecological manageability in manufacturing these days is a dire and exceptional issue and the principle concerns are identified with increasingly proficient utilization of energy and materials. Recycling can save a large amount greenhouse gas emissions, particularly in the case of aluminum. The parameter on the innovative technique on the direct recycling was investigated by employing design of experiments, via hot press forging process (DR-HPF). Thus, reutilizing of aluminum chips AA6061 with full factorial 32 design of experiment comprising a variety of working temperature and holding time were employed. Central composite design (CCD) was applied to outline the experiments towards evaluating the influences of the hot press forging parameters to the three responses; ultimate tensile strength (UTS), elongation to failure (ETF), and global warming potential (GWP). In conjunction with this, the environmental impacts associated with DR-HPF process are evaluated alongside the resultant conventional recycling (CR) by using re-melting route as indication. Experimental measurements, literature analysis and industrial data were merged to acquire the analysis of aluminum recycling life cycle. Clear conclusions were successfully drawn through the attained results on the outlook proposed by solid state direct recycling for the purpose of reducing the environmental effects by taking material and energy conservation as one of the most essential impacting factor. The global warming potential of a DR-HPF route gives a significant environmental impact where it is reduced up to 69.2% in comparison to the conventional (melting) routes.

Application of hydraulic press for testing powered roof prop supports

The report presents the possibility of using press forging, used in a smelter in the crushing and forming steel ingots processes, to the operation of compression powered roof supports. Press have been redeveloped which is to construct, to produce and to exchange handles so that they can be mounted in these housing racks in an upright position. Given the capability of measured quantities, measurement procedure and methodology of the study. There were presented some exemplary results of the tests.

Integrating Simulation with Experiment for Recycled Metal Matrix Composite (MMC-Al<sub>R</sub>) Developed through Hot Press Forging

This study proposes of harmonizing the original approach of aluminium alloy recycling through hot press forging. By eradicating the melting phase, most of the waste generation can be significantly reduced. To cope with the technology revolution, the finite element is utilised to predict the material behaviour without practically executing the trial. By employing three-dimensional finite element analysis through DEFORM 3D, the evaluations were demonstrated by simulating the isothermal forging process. The flow stress of the material was modified to adequate with the aluminium-based metal matrix composite used in the actual experiment. To that extent, this study found out that the strain of the workpiece had gradually increased on each step. A reduction of ~10% of the flesh observed in the simulation is roughly the same as existed on the experiment workpiece. Above all, the simulation conducted abides by the standard and follows the actual practice that has been done previously. Through the finite element utilization, this study discussed the performance of the recycled based composite. The result presented here may facilitate improvement in the recycling issue and also conserved the environment for the better future.

Conjectured the Behaviour of a Recycled Metal Matrix Composite (MMC⁻AlR) Developed through Hot Press Forging by Means of 3D FEM Simulation.

Melting aluminium waste to produce a secondary bulk material is such an energy-intensive recycling technique that it also indirectly threatens the environment. Hot press forging is introduced as an alternative. Mixing the waste with another substance is a proven practice that enhances the material integrity. To cope with the technology revolution, a finite element is utilised to predict the behaviour without a practical trial. Utilising commercial software, DEFORM 3D, the conjectures were demonstrated scientifically. The flow stress of the material was modified to suit the material used in the actual experiment. It is acknowledged that the stress–strain had gradually increased in each step. Due to the confined forming space, the temperature decreased by ~0.5% because the heat could not simply vacate the area. A reduction of ~10% of the flesh observed in the simulation is roughly the same as in the actual experiment. Above all, the simulation abides by the standards and follows what has been done previously. Through the finite element utilisation, this study forecasted the performance of the recycled composite. The results presented may facilitate improvement of the recycling issue and conserve the environment for a better future.

Life Cycle Assessment on the Effects of Parameter Setting in Direct Recycling Hot Press Forging of Aluminum

Metallic material processing plays a significant role in terms of global environmental impact which contributes to the climate change phenomena that is a serious international environmental concern and the subject of much research and debate. Thus, energy-and resource-efficient strategies in the metal shaping technology domain need to be identified urgently. A frequent theme in the debates that surround waste and resources management is the extent to which the recycling of metallic materials offers genuine benefits to the environment. Solid state recycling techniques allow the manufacture of high density aluminum alloy parts directly from production scrap. In this paper the environmental impacts associated with ‘meltless’ scrap processing routes through hot press forging process with varying parameter has been studied. A comparative analysis has been performed, with different operating temperature and holding time of direct recycling hot press forging process AA6061 aluminum chip. The importance of an environmental performance analysis that included both parameter setting was discussed and highlighted throughout the paper. Finally, the application of the proposed parameter setup has resulted in the setting up of an eco-process. Indeed, LCA study on recycling (solid-state) are recommended as well it gives a noteworthy benefit to the environment and to fill the knowledge gap.

Forging of Mg/Al bimetallic handle using explosive welded feedstock

The paper presents the results of investigation into the possibility of employing the forging process to produce aluminium-clad magnesium products. The purpose of the investigation was to develop and implement the technology of Mg/Al bimetal feedstock screw press forging and to compare the corrosion resistance of the product with that of an identical product made of a magnesium alloy. The feedstock was round 22.5mm-diameter and 160mm-length Mg/Al bars that had been produced using the explosive welding method. As an example product, a door handle used in helicopter production was selected. For comparison purposes, the door handle was also forged of magnesium alloy AZ31. After the forging process, the both products were subjected to corrosion resistance testing. From the obtained results it was found that the forging of the assumed quality could be made in the process of forging on the screw press, and that the use of the aluminium cladding layer only slightly increased the mass of the finished products, while substantially improving its corrosion resistance.

On the Role of Processing Parameters in Producing Recycled Aluminum AA6061 Based Metal Matrix Composite (MMC-AlR) Prepared Using Hot Press Forging (HPF) Process.

Solid-state recycling, which involves the direct recycling of scrap metal into bulk material using severe plastic deformation, has emerged as a potential alternative to the conventional remelting and recycling techniques. Hot press forging has been identified as a sustainable direct recycling technique that has fewer steps and maintains excellent material performance. An experimental investigation was conducted to explore the hardness and density of a recycled aluminum-based metal matrix composite by varying operating temperature and holding time. A mixture of recycled aluminum, AA6061, and aluminum oxide were simultaneously heated to 430, 480, and 530 °C and forged for 60, 90, and 120 min. We found a positive increase in microhardness and density for all composites. The hardness increased approximately 33.85%, while density improved by about 15.25% whenever the temperature or the holding time were increased. Based on qualitative analysis, the composite endures substantial plastic deformation due to the presence of hardness properties due to the aluminum oxide embedded in the aluminum matrix. These increases were significantly affected by the operating temperature; the holding time also had a subordinate role in enhancing the metal matrix composite properties. Furthermore, in an effort to curb the shortage of primary resources, this study reviewed the promising performance of secondary resources produced by using recycled aluminum and aluminum oxide as the base matrix and reinforcement constituent, respectively. This study is an outline for machining practitioners and the manufacturing industry to help increase industry sustainability with the aim of preserving the Earth for our community in the future.

Mechanical properties of recycled aluminium chip reinforced with alumina (Al2O3) particle

AbstractMetal matrix composites spur the possibility of advancing typical monolithic material properties. Offering great strength, lightweight and being able to withstand high temperatures are the main behaviours of the metal matrix composite. To that extent, many practitioners in either automotive or aerospace industries employed metal matrix composite in most of the critical parts. Forming metal matrix composite via solid state processing is considered innovative, as most of the metal matrix composite forming process took place either in liquid or gaseous processing. This paper studied in varying alumina amount from 1 to 5 wt % that had been introduced to recycled aluminium chip employing hot press forging. Aluminium chip was obtained by milling AA6061‐T6 bulk to a certain parameter. The medium size chips were cleaned, dried and mixed with alumina particles before being poured into a closed‐die mould. The main responses investigated were ultimate tensile strength and elongation to failure. Out of all fractions, 2 wt % of alumina ousted the other by significantly strengthening the composite and ductility, slightly better than the standard value. Further addition of alumina would enhance the composite strength, but in contrary, it also could threaten the material performance.

On the applicability of JMAK-type models in predicting IN718 microstructural evolution

Nickel-based superalloys are widely used in the aerospace sector for their mechanical properties, which are directly related to the microstructural and physical properties of these materials. JMAK-type models have been applied to this class of superalloys for the prediction of microstructural evolution phenomena such as recrystallisation. However, these models often lack a clear range of applicability. The majority of the successful applications normally address rather idealised processes (relatively slow forging, simple geometry). However, the real-world production environment generally involves complex strain paths and thermal histories. Thus, there arises the question of whether the JMAK-type models can be applied to such cases. This paper’s research focus is to investigate the applicability of JMAK-type models for such processes. To do this, screw press forging of disks was used to validate the in-built JMAK-type model of Inconel 718® available in DEFORMTM. In particular, the applicability of the model was examined using a comparison between the results from simulation and from metallographic analysis. At first, the appropriateness of the JMAK outputs in describing the observed microstructures was investigated and then quantitative results were evaluated. The model’s outputs were found to be insufficient in describing the observed microstructural states and additional parameters were deemed necessary. The model’s predictions ranged from a broadly good match, for which the model could be calibrated with a proposed new methodology, to a qualitative mismatch that highlights the limits of the model’s applicability.