Presence Of Passengers Research Articles

Are young drivers as careful as they deem? In vehicle data recorders and self reports evaluations

This paper aims to explore the driving behavior of young drivers few years after licensure based on two different evaluation approaches, which are used in a complementary manner. The evaluation was done with respect to driving exposure and trip safety. The evaluation is based on two data collection approaches, which were compiled for the same trips: The first, In Vehicle Data Recorders (IVDR), which were installed in the young drivers’ vehicles for a study period of 8 months. The second, Self-Reports (SR), which were provided by the young drivers at random times throughout the study period. These data have been compared and used in a complementary manner in order to provide an understanding of participants’ driving behavior. The results show high correlation of driving exposure which was self-reported and these obtained from IVDR. The results also indicate that young drivers clearly perceived themselves as being safer drivers than they are, according to IVDR findings. In addition variables available only in the SR e.g., the presence of passenger in the car were found to affect the trip risk level. The analysis obtained should be considered as exemplifying the potential of what may be accomplished and understood using these evaluation approaches.

Gender Dysphoria and Gendered Diaspora: Love, Sex and Empire in Amitav Ghosh's Sea of Poppies

A central element of Amitav Ghosh's Sea of Poppies is the manifestation of gender at sea, which distorts dualistic notions of domestic and commercial spheres of influence. The centrepiece of Ghosh's novel – a ship – seems initially presented as a predominately masculine and heteronormative space, but for the presence of a few Indian passengers en route to Mauritius. However, an examination of the social dynamics on board the Ibis reveals that both passengers and crew are engaged in a variety of attempts to utilize and express their gender and sexuality in ways that undermine the hegemonic narrative described by Celia Freeman, in which the sphere of international commerce is ‘masculinized’; for example, the manner in which members of the crew use gendered items of clothing to navigate their way around the enforcements of normativity, and create spaces in which gender and sexual fluidity are possible. The liminal, multicultural world of the sailboat opens up queer possibilities inaccessible on land due to the prevailing impositions of empire. Taking into account Jesse Ransley's claim that ‘the gendering of the maritime sphere as male, and the construction of male versus female… is modern, Western and dualistic’, I argue that Sea of Poppies is concerned with the ways that love, sexuality and gender effectively shape international politics and trade. Ghosh's depiction of the way romantic love operates within the world of nineteenth century maritime trade – specifically with regard to the character Baboo Nob Kissin – works at once to destabilize Western constructions of masculinity at sea, and to undermine assumptions of an innately secular Western queerness – assumptions Jasbir Puar dubs ‘homonationalism’, and denounces for their role in twisting the ideals of LGBT liberation to further the goals of empire.

Psychological effect of passenger presence on drivers and its dimensions: Scale development and validation

Passenger presence in vehicles has both positive (i.e., crash-reducing) and negative (i.e., crash-inducing) effects on drivers. Although many earlier studies have empirically investigated conditions under which negative or positive effects predominate, few of them considered why passenger presence has these effects. The present paper aimed to contribute to the understanding of this question by identifying dimensions of psychological effects of passenger presence that can influence the likelihood that drivers are involved in crashes. A multidimensional scale was developed by means of factor analysis. Data were collected from drivers who drive regularly with their spouses as passengers. Five dimensions were identified: “pique,” “flattery, vanity, and overdependence,” “relief,” “responsibility,” and “annoyance.” Each dimension’s subscale was shown to have a sufficient level of internal consistency and significant associations with external criteria on marital relationships and personality characteristics. The findings could serve as an important scientific basis for consideration of how to maximize the positive effects or minimize the negative effects of passenger presence.

The use of meta-analysis or research synthesis to combine driving simulation or naturalistic study results on driver distraction

Three important and inter-related topics are addressed in this paper. First, the importance of meta-analysis and research synthesis methods to combine studies on traffic safety, in general, and on driver distraction, in particular, is briefly reviewed. Second, naturalistic, epidemiologic, and driving simulation studies on driver distraction are used to illustrate convergent and divergent results that have accumulated thus far in this domain of research. In particular, mobile phone conversation, passenger presence, and text messaging naturalistic studies use meta-analyses and research syntheses to illustrate important patterns of results that are in need of more in-depth study. Third, a number of driver distraction study limitations such as poorly defined dependent variables, lack of methodological detail, and omission of statistical information prevent the integration of many studies into meta-analyses. In addition, the overall quality of road safety studies suffers from these same limitations and suggestions for improvement are made to guide researchers and reviewers. Practical Applications. The use of research synthesis and meta-analysis provide comprehensive estimates of the impact of distractions on driving performance, which can be used to guide public policy and future research.

Peer Passenger Influences on Male Adolescent Drivers' Visual Scanning Behavior During Simulated Driving

PurposeThere is a higher likelihood of crashes and fatalities when an adolescent drives with peer passengers, especially for male drivers and male passengers. Simulated driving of male adolescent drivers with male peer passengers was studied to examine passenger influences on distraction and inattention. MethodsMale adolescents drove in a high-fidelity driving simulator with a male confederate who posed either as a risk-accepting passenger or as a risk-averse passenger. Drivers' eye movements were recorded. The visual scanning behavior of the drivers was compared when driving alone with when driving with a passenger and when driving with a risk-accepting passenger with a risk-averse passenger. ResultsThe visual scanning of a driver significantly narrowed horizontally and vertically when driving with a peer passenger. There were no significant differences in the times the drivers' eyes were off the forward roadway when driving with a passenger versus when driving alone. Some significant correlations were found between personality characteristics and the outcome measures. ConclusionsThe presence of a male peer passenger was associated with a reduction in the visual scanning range of male adolescent drivers. This reduction could be a result of potential cognitive load imposed on the driver due to the presence of a passenger and the real or perceived normative influences or expectations from the passenger.

Distracted Driver Behaviors and Distracting Conditions Among Adolescent Drivers: Findings From a Naturalistic Driving Study

PurposeThe proliferation of new communication technologies and capabilities has prompted concern about driving safety. This concern is particularly acute for inexperienced adolescent drivers. In addition to being early adopters of technology, many adolescents have not achieved the degree of automaticity in driving that characterizes experienced adults. Consequently, distractions may be more problematic in this group. Yet little is known about the nature or prevalence of distracted driving behaviors or distracting conditions among adolescent drivers. MethodVehicles of 52 high-school age drivers (N = 38 beginners and N = 14 more experienced) were equipped for 6 months with unobtrusive event-triggered data recorders that obtain 20-second clips of video, audio, and vehicle kinematic information when triggered. A low recording trigger threshold was set to obtain a sample of essentially random driving segments along with those indicating rough driving behaviors. ResultsElectronic device use (6.7%) was the most common single type of distracted behavior, followed by adjusting vehicle controls (6.2%) and grooming (3.8%). Most distracted driver behaviors were less frequent when passengers were present. However, loud conversation and horseplay were quite common in the presence of multiple peer passengers. These conditions were associated with looking away from the road, the occurrence of serious events, and, to a lesser extent, rough driving (high g-force events). ConclusionsCommon assumptions about adolescent driver distraction are only partially borne out by in-vehicle measurement. The association of passengers with distraction appears more complex than previously realized. The relationship between distractions and serious events differed from the association with rough driving.

Effect of Passenger Presence on Older Drivers’ Risk of Fatal Crash Involvement

Objective: To determine the association between passenger presence and risk of fatal crash involvement in relation to driver and passenger age and gender, focusing especially on drivers ages 65 and older. Methods: Data on US fatal crashes were obtained for 2002–2009. Using the quasi-induced exposure methodology, logistic regression analysis was used to predict the odds of fatal crash involvement as a function of driver age and gender as well as passenger age and gender. Results: Overall, risk of fatal crash involvement with passengers was 43 percent lower for drivers ages 65–74 and 38 percent lower for drivers 75 and older. Older drivers’ risk of fatal crash involvement was lower with almost all combinations of passenger age and gender; there was no reduction in risk with passengers ages 75 and older. Effects were stronger at nonintersection locations than at intersection locations. Conclusion: Older drivers’ crash risk is lower with almost every combination of passenger age group and gender. It is unclear whether the presence of passengers lowers older driver crash risk or whether safer drivers tend to ride with passengers.

Effects of an adult passenger on young adult drivers’ driving speed: Roles of an adult passenger's presence and driving tips from the passenger

An adult passenger has been known to facilitate young drivers’ safe driving. This study examined whether the adult passenger's effect is produced by the simple presence of an adult passenger or by the driving tips offered by the passenger. Further, we examined whether the effect would be transferred to when a young driver drives alone without the adult passenger in the following session. Three groups of participants drove on expressway in a driving simulator, either alone, with a silent adult passenger, or with an adult passenger who gave advice on driving safety. After a break, participants in all three conditions drove on the same expressway alone. Results showed that participants who drove with an adult passenger providing driving tips drove more safely than the other groups, and the effect was transferred to even when they drove alone afterwards.

Analysis of factors associated with injury severity in crashes involving young New Zealand drivers

Young people are a risk to themselves and other road users, as motor vehicle crashes are the leading cause of their death. A thorough understanding of the most important factors associated with injury severity in crashes involving young drivers is important for designing well-targeted restrictive measures within youth-oriented road safety programs. The current study estimates discrete choice models of injury severity of crashes involving young drivers conditional on these crashes having occurred. The analysis examined a comprehensive set of single-vehicle and two-vehicle crashes involving at least one 15–24 year-old driver in New Zealand between 2002 and 2011 that resulted in minor, serious or fatal injuries. A mixed logit model accounting for heterogeneity and heteroscedasticity in the propensity to injury severity outcomes and for correlation between serious and fatal injuries proved a better fit than a binary and a generalized ordered logit. Results show that the young drivers’ behavior, the presence of passengers and the involvement of vulnerable road users were the most relevant factors associated with higher injury severity in both single-vehicle and two-vehicle crashes. Seatbelt non-use, inexperience and alcohol use were the deadliest behavioral factors in single-vehicle crashes, while fatigue, reckless driving and seatbelt non-use were the deadliest factors in two-vehicle crashes. The presence of passengers in the young drivers’ vehicle, and in particular a combination of males and females, dramatically increased the probability of serious and fatal injuries. The involvement of vulnerable road users, in particular on rural highways and open roads, considerably amplified the probability of higher crash injury severity.

Bus for Urban Public Transport: Energy Performance Optimization

Nowadays many people use public transports in urban centers. Consequently, every day a lot of buses move within cities, trying to ensure the best service to citizens. During the year buses become crowded places and using an air conditioning system in constant operation, it tries to ensure a certain condition of comfort for the passengers on board. The aim of this study is to analyze and optimize the energy performance of a bus shell, identifying practical solutions have not yet been adopted in order to reduce the impact of air conditioning on bus’ consumption and, therefore, on air pollution. For this reason it was decided to conduct a thermal analysis of a bus for public transport, in order to understand the behavior of the bus shell and to deduce possible optimization measures that have not yet been made until now. The analysis was carried out considering the hottest day of July and the coldest day of January, considering the operating conditions based on the most common graphics TGM (Average Daily Traffic) able to define the concentration of traffic city during the 24hours per day. The study was done using the dynamic simulation software TRNSYS. With this software it was possible to recreate faithfully the structure of the bus and the external environmental conditions, assessing the impact of different technical solutions for an improvement of internal conditions and a reduction of the cooling capacity required. As the presence of passengers on public transport are considered like a “benefit” during the winter, the analysis is started with the identification of a summer solution and the subsequent evaluation of this solution for the winter time. The aim of this study was to optimize the bus shell and select the most appropriate solutions. Regarding the transparent surfaces it has been given importance to factors such as the thermal transmittance and the solar gain factor (g-value). Aware of the influence given by the solar radiation on the energy loads, bus energy performance were simulated also considering different types of paintwork with high reflectance.

Experimental effects of injunctive norms on simulated risky driving among teenage males.

Teenage passengers affect teenage driving performance, possibly by social influence. To examine the effect of social norms on driving behavior, male teenagers were randomly assigned to drive in a simulator with a peer-aged confederate to whom participants were primed to attribute either risk-accepting or risk-averse social norms. It was hypothesized that teenage drivers would engage in more risky driving behavior in the presence of peer passengers than no passengers, and with a risk-accepting compared with a risk-averse passenger. 66 male participants aged 16 to 18 years holding a provisional driver license were randomized to drive with a risk-accepting or risk-averse passenger in a simulator. Failure to Stop at a red light and percent Time in Red (light) were measured as primary risk-relevant outcomes of interest at 18 intersections, while driving once alone and once with their assigned passenger. The effect of passenger presence on risky driving was moderated by passenger type for Failed to Stop in a generalized linear mixed model (OR = 1.84, 95% CI [1.19, 2.86], p < .001), and percent Time in Red in a mixed model (B = 7.71, 95% CI [1.54, 13.87], p < .05). Exposure of teenage males to a risk-accepting confederate peer increased teenage males' risky simulated driving behavior compared with exposure to a risk-averse confederate peer. These results indicate that variability in teenage risky driving could be partially explained by social norms.

Child passenger safety practices and injury risk in crashes with father versus mother drivers

In order to test stereotypes that mothers are more safety conscious than fathers, this study aimed to explore differences in restraint patterns, front-row seating and injury for children in crashes...

A latent segmentation based generalized ordered logit model to examine factors influencing driver injury severity

This paper formulates and estimates an econometric model, referred to as the latent segmentation based generalized ordered logit (LSGOL) model, for examining driver injury severity. The proposed model probabilistically allocates drivers (involved in a crash) into different injury severity segments based on crash characteristics to recognize that the impacts of exogenous variables on driver injury severity level can vary across drivers based on both observed and unobserved crash characteristics. The proposed model is estimated using Victorian Crash Database from Australia for the years 2006 through 2010. The model estimation incorporates the influence of a comprehensive set of exogenous variables grouped into six broad categories: crash characteristics, driver characteristics, vehicle characteristics, roadway design attributes, environmental factors and situational factors. The results clearly highlight the need for segmentation based on crash characteristics. The crash characteristics that affect the allocation of drivers into segments include: collision object, trajectory of vehicle's motion and manner of collision. Further, the key factors resulting in severe driver injury severity are driver age 65 and above, driver ejection, not wearing seat belts and collision in a high speed zone. The factors reducing driver injury severity include the presence of pedestrian control, presence of roundabout, driving a panel van, unpaved road condition and the presence of passengers.

Optical Wireless for Intravehicle Communications: Incorporating Passenger Presence Scenarios

Through the implementation of a simple linearly scalable 1-W infrared (IR) transmitter, which is centrally located on the ceiling of a sports utility vehicle (SUV), and for 15 passenger configurations, an analysis into the received power, power deviation, minimum bandwidth, and maximum root-mean-square (RMS) delay spread is provided for the regions of the vehicle most likely to benefit from the deployment of intravehicle optical wireless (OW) communication systems. Several specific regions, including the areas around a passenger's legs, arms, necks, and shoulders, are shown to have beneficial channel characteristics for the use of personal electronics equipment such as laptops, tablet PCs, or wireless headphones. Similarly, a region around the headrest of the front seat is shown to have potential for the deployment of in-car entertainment solutions independent of the passenger configuration. This analysis, which is the first to introduce the concept of channel variation from multiple passenger configurations, aims to show that OW is a potential candidate for future intravehicular communication systems.

Identification of elderly drivers whose crash involvement risks are alleviated by passenger presence

It is essential to find measures to compensate for the decline in elderly drivers’ driving ability in order to meet their mobility needs and ensure their safety when driving. Although it has been well documented that elderly drivers’ risks of crash involvement are alleviated by the presence of passengers, few studies have investigated whether the protective effect of passengers is influenced by driver characteristics including the degree of cognitive impairment. This study aimed to identify subgroups of elderly drivers whose crash involvement risks are more effectively alleviated by passenger presence. After dividing elderly drivers into three levels of cognitive impairment, as measured by the Short-Memory Questionnaire, and two gender groups, the present study found that only male drivers in the middle cognitive level benefited from passenger presence. The effectiveness of passenger presence may be more successfully achieved by proper selection of the appropriate range of cognitive decline and gender.

The effect of male teenage passengers on male teenage drivers: Findings from a driving simulator study

Studies have shown that teenage drivers are less attentive, more frequently exhibit risky driving behavior, and have a higher fatal crash risk in the presence of peers. The effects of direct peer pressure and conversation on young drivers have been examined. Little is known about the impact on driving performance of the presence of a non-interacting passenger and subtle modes of peer influence, such as perceived social norms. The goal of this study was to examine if teenagers would engage in more risky driving practices and be less attentive in the presence of a passenger (vs. driving alone) as well as with a risk-accepting (vs. risk-averse) passenger. A confederate portrayed the passenger's characteristics mainly by his non-verbal attitude. The relationship between driver characteristics and driving behavior in the presence of a passenger was also examined. Thirty-six male participants aged 16–17 years old were randomly assigned to drive with a risk-accepting or risk-averse passenger. Main outcomes included speed, headway, gap acceptance, eye glances at hazards, and horizontal eye movement. Driver characteristics such as tolerance of deviance, susceptibility to peer pressure, and self-esteem were measured. Compared to solo driving, the presence of a passenger was associated with significantly fewer eye glances at hazards and a trend for fewer horizontal eye movements. Contrary to the hypothesis, however, Passenger Presence was associated with waiting for a greater number of vehicles to pass before initiating a left turn. Results also showed, contrary to the hypothesis, that participants with the risk-accepting passenger maintained significantly longer headway with the lead vehicle and engaged in more eye glances at hazards than participants with the risk-averse passenger. Finally, when driving with the passenger, earlier initiation of a left turn in a steady stream of oncoming vehicles was significantly associated with higher tolerance of deviance and susceptibility to peer pressure, while fewer eye glances at hazards was linked to lower self-esteem. While the results of this study were mixed, they suggest that the presence of a teenage passenger can affect some aspects of teenage driver behavior even in the absence of overt pressure and distraction. Results are discussed in relation to theoretical concepts of social influence and social facilitation models.

Teen Driver Risk in Relation to Age and Number of Passengers, United States, 2007–2010

Objective: To provide updated estimates of the relationship between the number and ages of passengers present in a vehicle and the crash risk per mile driven of 16- and 17-year-old drivers. Methods: Data on crashes that occurred in years 2007–2010 and data on the number of miles driven in years 2008–2009 were examined. Rates of crash involvement and driver death per mile driven were estimated for 16- and 17-year-old drivers with no passengers; with 1, 2, and 3 or more passengers younger than age 21 (and no older passengers); and with at least 1 passenger aged 35 or older. Results: For 16- and 17-year-old drivers, having 1 passenger younger than age 21 (and no older passengers) was associated with 44 percent greater risk per mile driven of being killed in a crash, compared to having no passengers (relative risk [RR]: 1.44, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.01–2.04). Having 2 passengers younger than age 21 was associated with double the risk of being killed in a crash, compared to having no passengers (RR: 2.02, 95% CI: 1.36–2.99). Having 3 or more passengers younger than age 21 was associated with roughly quadruple the risk of being killed in a crash, compared to having no passengers (RR: 4.39, 95% CI: 1.45–13.31). The relative risk of being involved in any police-reported crash in the presence of young passengers followed a similar pattern; however, the differences in risks of being involved in any police-reported crash were smaller and were not statistically significant. Having at least 1 passenger aged 35 or older in the vehicle was associated with a 62 percent lower risk per mile driven of being killed in a crash (RR: 0.38, 95% CI: 0.24–0.60) and a 46 percent lower risk of being involved in any police-reported crash (RR: 0.54, 95% CI: 0.31–0.93) for 16- and 17-year-old drivers, compared to having no passengers. Conclusions: These results show that although the overall number of teen driver fatalities has decreased substantially over the past several years, carrying young passengers is still a significant risk factor for young drivers. In contrast, carrying adult passengers is associated with significantly lower risk of crash involvement.

Car crashes: The effect of passenger presence and other factors on driver outcome

This study was conducted to evaluate whether the presence of passengers affects the consequences, for drivers, of road crashes, also taking into account other factors associated with driver outcome following a crash.Data on car drivers involved in accidents occurring in 2004 and 2005 in the Italian province of Pavia were analysed. The data came from the Pavia office of the Italian Driver and Vehicle Licensing Authority and are based on police accident reports. Logistic regression analyses were performed.Injury risk in drivers under 25years of age increased in the presence of a passenger. This effect was not found in drivers aged 25years and older. In single-vehicle accidents, passenger presence was found to exert a negative effect among the young drivers, but a positive one among the adult drivers. Crash outcome for young drivers is more likely to be severe when the passenger is male. This study confirmed the existence of other risk factors influencing the severity of crashes for drivers: gender, penalty points, possession of other driving licences in addition to the basic car one, time and day of the week on which the crash occurred, dynamics and place of the crash.These results underline the importance of evaluating passenger presence as a factor influencing crash outcome. Further studies assessing the influence of passengers on the risk of occurrence of crashes, and also considering the impact of crashes on passengers and other road users, would improve our understanding of this topic.

Increased risk of driver fatality due to unrestrained rear-seat passengers in severe frontal crashes

While belt usage among rear-seat passengers is disproportionately lower than their front-seat counterpart, this may have serious consequences in the event of a crash not only for the unbelted rear-seat passenger but also for the front-seat passengers as well. To quantify that effect, the objective of the study is to evaluate the increased likelihood of driver fatality in the presence of unrestrained rear-seat passengers in a severe frontal collision. U.S.-based census data from 2001 to 2009 fatal motor vehicle crashes was used to enroll frontal crashes which involved 1998 or later year vehicle models with belted drivers and at least one adult passenger in the rear left seat behind the driver. Results using multivariate logistic regression analysis indicated that the odds of a belt restrained driver sustaining a fatal injury was 137% (95% CI=95%, 189%) higher when the passenger behind the driver was unbelted in comparison to a belted case while the effects of driver age, sex, speed limit, vehicle body type, airbag deployment and driver ejection were controlled in the model. The likelihood of driver fatality due to an unrestrained rear left passenger increased further (119–197%) in the presence of additional unrestrained rear seat passengers in the rear middle or right seats. The results from the study highlight the fact that future advances to front row passive safety systems (e.g. multi-stage airbag deployment) must be adapted to take into account the effect of unrestrained rear-seat passengers.

Indoor–outdoor relationships of airborne particles and nitrogen dioxide inside Parisian buses

This study evaluated passengers' exposure to traffic air pollution inside the articulated buses of the line 91 in Paris during 10 working days in May, 2010. Twenty articulated buses were studied on 32 routes in order to determine the influence of the sampling position on the pollutant concentrations. This parameter is still poorly known for the rigid buses and is even less known for the articulated ones. However this parameter must be studied for articulated buses because the greater length may cause a pollutant concentration gradient in the cabin. Portable devices were used to measure pollutants in the presence of passengers from 8 a.m. to 9 a.m. and from 4 p.m. to 5 p.m., time periods corresponding to the peak traffic and travellers. PM2.5 mass concentration, particle number concentration between 0.3 and 20 μm and nitrogen dioxide concentration were simultaneously measured on three positions inside the buses (front, middle and rear) in order to study the spatial distribution of these compounds. These measurements inside the buses were compared to the outdoor concentrations at the same moment of the day provided by the Parisian air quality monitoring network; they were also compared to the results of a previous monitoring campaign performed in 2008. The results obtained during the 2010 campaign revealed that in-cabin NO2 mean concentrations were 1.5–3.5 times higher than the outside concentration levels; a maximum concentration of 234 ± 40 μg m−3 was found in the rear position (location of the engine and exhaust gas). Mean in-cabin PM2.5 mass concentrations varied from one week to another one, but they were globally the same at the three positions inside the instrumented buses. In order to determine the impact of outdoor levels, correlations have been calculated between the results measured inside the buses and those measured by the outdoor air monitoring stations. The highest Pearson correlation coefficient was 0.29 for NO2 data whereas the highest Pearson correlation coefficient between in-cabin PM2.5 mass concentrations and outdoor levels was 0.96. The higher indoor/outdoor correlation of PM2.5 compared to NO2 may result from the high variation of PM2.5 outdoors. Otherwise, this low indoor/outdoor correlation of NO2 can highlight a source of pollution other than the outdoor air.