Presence Of Mycotoxins Research Articles

Analysis of synthetic food color additive, sugar, and mycotoxin content in traditional, cereal-based Sobia beverage using high-performance liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry

ObjectiveThe traditional cereal-based fermented beverage, Sobia, is in high demand in the Arab community of the Middle East, particularly during the sacred month of Ramadhan. The sugar (fructose, glucose, and sucrose) content and presence of synthetic food color additives (tartrazine [E-102], sunset yellow [E-110], carmoisine [E-122], and brilliant black [E-151]) and major mycotoxins (aflatoxins, trichothecene [T-2], ochratoxins, and deoxynivalenol [DON]) in Sobia beverages from the western and central regions of Saudi Arabia were investigated for safety. MethodsSobia samples from anonymous vendors were collected, divided based on their apparent colors (red, dark red, white, or yellow), and prepared following a simple, “quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, and safe” extraction method. This was followed by high-performance liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry analysis. ResultsSugars were present at the following concentrations: fructose: 0.69–33.81 mg/mL; glucose: 0.26–37.69 mg/mL; and sucrose: 0.30–149.67 mg/mL. Synthetic food colorants E-102 and E-122 were detected at concentrations of 0.22–1.37 µg/mL and 6.58–42.73 µg/mL, respectively. By contrast, E-110 and E-151 were found in only one sample at concentrations of 0.45 µg/mL and 152.87 µg/mL, respectively. The results of mycotoxin analysis revealed no aflatoxin B1, B2, G1, or G2 in any sample; however, T-2 and DON appeared at concentrations of 0.6–1.4 µg/mL and 1.15–38.5 µg/mL, respectively. ConclusionThe results of this investigation of Sobia beverages revealed the presence of two mycotoxins. However, it eliminated the concern over the most carcinogenic mycotoxins: aflatoxins. It also illustrated the unmediated addition of sugars and synthetic food colorants (used to enhance taste and attract consumers) during Sobia production. Thus, there is an urgent need for responsible agencies to regulate Sobia production. Further investigation is required to assess the quality and health risks of Sobia beverages.

The Correlation between Concentration of Atlatoxins andOchratoxin A and Tumor Patienl·s Cases in Nineveh province

This study was conducted to investigate the correlation between occurrence of Aflatoxins Bl (AFBI), M1 (AEM), Aflatoxicol, and Ochratoxin A (OA), and tumor patients in Nineveh province. Blood, urine and tissues samples were taken from 33 tumor patients at liver and kidney organs, and 18 samples from healthy volunteer's peoples to estimated the presence and concentration of AFB1, AFM, Aflatoxicol, and OA contents. It had been found that the AFB1, AFM], and OA at a high percentage in blood samples from patients group at 42.4, 45.5, and 42.4 % respectively and high range concentrations 4.5 to 13.1, 94 to 31.6, and 1.02 to B.6 ng/100 ml of blood respactively, comparcd with the above mycotoxins presence in same samples from healthy group. On the other hand there was & highly percentage for ocourrcnce and concentrations of AFBI, AFM], aflatoxicol, and OA in urine samples from patients group (54.5, 66.7, 60.6 and 42.4 % respectively and the concentrations at 5.2 to 25.1, 10.7 to 36.8, 7.2 to 20.3 and 9.2 to 33.7 ng/100 ml of urine respectively when compared with the same samples from healthy group. Furthermore, found that a high concentration of AFB1. AFM], and OA in the liver and kidney samples that taken from tumor patients group. The results was corfirm the strongly correlation between level vccurrence and concentration of myctoxins type and the tumor cases in contributors peoples.

Mycotoxins Exposure of Lactating Women and Its Relationship with Dietary and Pre/Post-Harvest Practices in Rural Ethiopia

Mycotoxins can be transferred to breast milk during lactation. Hence, the presence of multiple mycotoxins (aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, G2, and M1, alpha and beta zearalanol, deoxynivalenol, fumonisins B1, B2, B3, and hydrolyzed B1, nivalenol, ochratoxin A, ochratoxin alpha, and zearalenone) in breast milk samples was assessed in our study. Furthermore, the relationship between total fumonisins and pre/post-harvest and the women's dietary practices was examined. Liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry was used to analyze the 16 mycotoxins. An adjusted censored regression model was fitted to identify predictors of mycotoxins, i.e., total fumonisins. We detected only fumonisin B2 (15% of the samples) and fumonisin B3 (9% of the samples) while fumonisin B1 and nivalenol were detected only in a single breast milk sample. No association between total fumonisins and pre/post-harvest and dietary practices was found (p < 0.05). The overall exposure to mycotoxins was low in the studied women, although fumonisins contamination was not negligible. Moreover, the recorded total fumonisins was not associated with any of the pre/post-harvest and dietary practices. Therefore, to better identify predictors of fumonisin contamination in breast milk, longitudinal studies with food samples in addition to breast milk samples and with larger sample sizes are needed for the future.

Consequences of the presence of toxicogenic mold fungi in grain

Goal. To study how the content of fusarium grains and the products of the vital activity of the Fusarium fungus in wheat changes during its storage. To establish within what limits the number of mycotoxins in wheat grains grown in the Vinnytsia region varies. Methods. Grains with signs of fusarium were identified in samples isolated from average samples using a magnifying glass (magnification 4.5 times) and a microscope of the MBS type (magnification 100–150 times) under sufficient lighting. The presence of mycotoxins was determined by the immunoenzymatic method, which involved the use of test systems and the Sunrise analyzer. Results. Among wheat grain samples examined in 2019, 45.2% were affected by the fusarium fungus, 71.4% of those examined in 2020, and 87.5% of those examined in 2021. That is, there is a tendency to increase the amount of grain affected by fungi of the genus Fusarium. But if in 2019 there were samples with a share of fusarium grain up to 11%, and in 2020 — up to 18, then in 2021 the maximum damage was 8.1%. That is, there are various factors influencing the spread of these mushrooms, and they must be studied. It was established that during the storage of wheat, which contained 0.7% of fusarium grain, its infection with the fungus increased — that was confirmed by the increase in the index of waste admixture. In such a grain, the mass fraction of protein decreased and the number of mycotoxins increased. Thus, the content of deoxynivalenone can increase to 2.92 mg/kg, i.e. 2.6 times, which significantly exceeds its permissible level (1–2 mg/kg) in fodder grain. The conducted studies, during which it was established that in wheat grain, which was put into storage and contained 0.5% of Fusarium grain, the content of deoxynivalenone increased by 3-4 times, zearalenone — by 7.3, and T2 toxin — by 30 times. Conclusions. Over the past three years, they observed an increase in the contamination of grain crops with Fusarium wilt and, as a result, an increase in the content of mycotoxins in it. It was established that in grain affected by 0.5% Fusarium wilt after 3 months, the storage may contain up to 3.51 mg/kg of deoxynivalenone, 3.51 of zearalenone, and up to 0.6 mg/kg of T2 toxin. It should be remembered that the grain that is put into storage and already contains mycotoxins will accumulate them in the future, therefore, control of such grain for the number of fungal by-products is mandatory.

Mycotoxin Contamination Status of Cereals in China and Potential Microbial Decontamination Methods.

The presence of mycotoxins in cereals can pose a significant health risk to animals and humans. China is one of the countries that is facing cereal contamination by mycotoxins. Treating mycotoxin-contaminated cereals with established physical and chemical methods can lead to negative effects, such as the loss of nutrients, chemical residues, and high energy consumption. Therefore, microbial detoxification techniques are being considered for reducing and treating mycotoxins in cereals. This paper reviews the contamination of aflatoxins, zearalenone, deoxynivalenol, fumonisins, and ochratoxin A in major cereals (rice, wheat, and maize). Our discussion is based on 8700 samples from 30 provincial areas in China between 2005 and 2021. Previous research suggests that the temperature and humidity in the highly contaminated Chinese cereal-growing regions match the growth conditions of potential antagonists. Therefore, this review takes biological detoxification as the starting point and summarizes the methods of microbial detoxification, microbial active substance detoxification, and other microbial inhibition methods for treating contaminated cereals. Furthermore, their respective mechanisms are systematically analyzed, and a series of strategies for combining the above methods with the treatment of contaminated cereals in China are proposed. It is hoped that this review will provide a reference for subsequent solutions to cereal contamination problems and for the development of safer and more efficient methods of biological detoxification.

Methodology for risk-based monitoring of contaminants in food – A case study in cereals and fish

In this study, a methodology was developed that can be used as input for risk-based monitoring plans for chemical contaminants in food products. The novel methodology was applied to a case study in which cereals and fish were evaluated simultaneously for the possible presence of mycotoxins and heavy metals. The methodology was based on hazard quotients that were estimated by dividing the daily intake - using concentrations of the contaminants in the different food products and consumption of the respective products combined per product group - by the health based guidance value (HBGV) or reference points used for assessing potential health concerns (RPHC). The most relevant hazard-product combinations were further ranked based on the volume of import of the ingredients, per import country and a defined contaminant prevalence level per country. For fish, the hazard quotients were around ten times lower compared to the highest hazard quotients in cereals. Consumption of molluscs, mackerel-type fish and herring-type fish contaminated with mercury contributed most to the HBGV or RPHC. The top 25 hazard-product combinations for various age groups included: aflatoxin B1 in combination with wheat, rice (products), maize (products), and pasta, zearalenone in combination with wheat (products), T2/HT2-toxin in combination with rice (products), and DON in combination with wheat (products). The methodology presented showed to be useful in identifying the most relevant hazard-food-age group combinations and the most relevant import countries linked to these that should be included in the monitoring. As such, the method can help risk managers in establishing risk-based monitoring programs.

Mycotoxins in milk: Occurrence and evaluation of certain detoxification attempts.

Milk contaminated with mycotoxins is a significant issue affecting human health, especially in infants. The current study aimed to investigate the presence of mycotoxins in milk collected from women farmers' vendors (WFV), and to evaluate certain herbal plant fibers as green mycotoxin binders. Moreover, explore the binding efficiency ratios of mycotoxins using shaking or soaking process incorporated with herbal extracts. Furthermore, compare the taste evaluations of tested milk are enriched with herbal extracts. Results indicated that the fumonisins were not detected in the collected cow milk samples but realized a 25% occurrence ratio in buffalo's milk samples. A high occurrence ratio of aflatoxin M1 (aflaM1) was observed in buffalo and cow milk samples. The soaking process of plant fibers in contaminated milk overnight significantly degrades and adsorbs mycotoxins particles. The shacking process incorporated with plant fibers exhibited more effectiveness in mycotoxins degradation than soaking or shacking processes alone. The speed of shacking process played an important role in the mycotoxin's binding process. All the tested plant fibers effectively reduced all mycotoxin presence in contaminated milk, especially green tea, during the soaking or shacking process. Moreover, the shacking process incorporated with plant fibers promoted and supported the mycotoxins degradation process.

Obtaining and characterization of bentonite organophilic incorporated with geranyl acetate and its application as mycotoxins’ binder in simulated gastrointestinal fluids

One of the major problems linked to the animal feed industry is the presence of mycotoxins, substances produced by fungi, which even in low concentrations can cause health-related inconveniences and severe economic losses. This study reports the production of organophilic bentonite incorporated geranyl acetate (GA) 0.4 (w/w) (Bent-ODA). The synthesized composite was employed to remove carcinogenic mycotoxins Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1). The product was characterized by FRX, XRD, FTIR, TGA, and BET/BJH techniques, while quantifying mycotoxins was performed using HPLC/LC-MS. The effect of intestinal fluids (pH 6.5, the average pH of the intestine, or pH 3.5, the average pH of the stomach) on the adsorption performance of Bent-ODA-GA was systematically investigated. This new material was preliminary evaluated for its antifungal activity against Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus niger. XRD showed that GA was intercalated in bentonite modified by ODA, and FTIR confirmed the presence of GA in the Bent-ODA structure. Furthermore, the product showed the presence of mesopores, and reduced pore volume compared to Bent-ODA. Preliminary results showed that Bent-ODA-GA reduced fungal growth, which allows only traces of fungal growth on its surface, filling <10% of plate, receiving a rating 1 according to ASTM G21‐15. The adsorption kinetics showed that to Bent-ODA, 45 min is enough time of contact with AFB1 to reduce it to acceptable levels by legislation, this being 20 μg∙kg‐1, regardless of the pH used, while for Bent-ODA-GA the time necessary to reach levels that are according to the legislation it is 120 min for a pH of 3.5 and 100 min for a pH of 6.5. Therefore, attributed to the advantages of being efficient, Bent-ODA-GA could be envisaged as a promising adsorbent for the enhanced sequestration of Aflatoxin B1.

Emerging Alternaria and Fusarium mycotoxins in tomatoes and derived tomato products from the China market: Occurrence, methods of determination, and risk evaluation

Emerging Alternaria and Fusarium mycotoxins are increasingly becoming a public health concern due to the frequent contamination of various food commodities with these mycotoxins, posing potential health risks to humans. This study developed QuEChERS extraction method coupled with LC–MS/MS for simultaneous quantification of alternariol monomethyl ether (AME), alternariol (AOH), tentoxin (TEN), tenuazonic acid (TeA), altenuene (ALT), enniatins (ENNs) A, A1, B, and B1, and beauvericin (BEA) in tomatoes and derived tomato products. The validated method was successfully applied for a survey of 194 tomatoes and derived tomato products. Overall, one or more mycotoxins were detected in 58.8% of the samples, 100% of tomato powders, 100% of canned tomatoes, 89.6% of tomato sauces, 82.1% of ketchups, 46.7% of tomato juices, and 20% of dried tomatoes, with no mycotoxins detected in fresh tomatoes. Various mycotoxins were detected at relatively higher contamination levels in tomato powders than in other tomato products. TeA, the most predominant mycotoxin, was detected in 56.7% of the samples with an occurrence level of up to 7,985 μg/kg. Approximately 39.2% of positive samples presented the co-occurrence of more than one mycotoxins, and AME + AOH + TeA was the most frequently detected combination. This study is the first to perform the deterministic risk assessment for children and adults on Alternaria and Fusarium mycotoxins that are present in tomatoes and derived tomato products in China. The results showed that the average and 95th percentile dietary exposures to these mycotoxins, especially to AME and AOH, in children might be higher than those in adults by a factor of approximately 2. The estimation of exposure to either Alternaria mycotoxins or Fusarium mycotoxins indicated that the presence of Alternaria and Fusarium mycotoxins in derived tomato products might be a health concern, especially among children and the populations consuming a high amount of these products. However, no firm conclusion could be drawn due to the lack of relevant in vivo toxicity data. This study serves as a useful reference for individuals and food safety authorities concerning mycotoxin contamination in food commodities. • Methods for emerging toxins determination in various tomato products were developed. • About 58.8% (114/194) of tomato-based products were contaminated with emerging toxins. • Co-occurrence of various emerging toxins was evident in 39.2% (76/194) of samples. • Dietary exposures to Alternaria and Fusarium toxins varied among children and adults.

An overview of public health implications of mycotoxins contamination of maize and guinea corn from markets in Kogi State, Nigeria

Maize and guinea corn being one of the most important staple in Nigeria were evaluated for their mycotoxins contents., 20 samples of maize and 20 sample of guinea corn ( 10 samples collected from the markets and 10 samples collected from the ware house) were obtained from three different senatorial zone of Kogi State. A total of 30 samples of maize and 30 samples of guinea corn collected from the three zones of Kogi state were analyzed for the presence of Aflatoxin B1, AflatoxinB2, Fumonisin, Ochratoxin A, and Zearalenone. The result revealed the presence of the studied mycotoxins in 67 % of all the 60 samples. The results also revealed the presence of mycotoxins in 80 % of the 15 maize samples picked from the market and 73 % of the 15 maize samples picked from the ware house in the three senatorial zone. Also the percentage composition of all the mycotoxins present in the 30 samples of guinea corn was 67% of the 15 samples picked from the markets and 47% of the 15 samples picked from the ware house respectively. Among all the studied mycotoxins, only fumonisin have its concentration above the recommended limit approved by the Joint Expert Committee on Food Additives of the WHO and FAO (JECFA). The concentration of the remaining mycotoxins under study is nothing to be worried about but, adequate measure should be taken to checkmate the conditions that expose the food crops to the growth of fungi.

Impact of Climate Changes on the Natural Prevalence of Fusarium Mycotoxins in Maize Harvested in Serbia and Croatia.

Ongoing climate change may affect the susceptibility of plants to attacks by pathogenic, mostly mycotoxigenic fungi with a consequent increase in the presence of mycotoxins. Fusarium fungi represent one of the most important producers of mycotoxins, and are also important pathogens of agricultural crops. Therefore, the main aim of the study was to estimate the impact of weather parameters on the natural occurrence of Fusarium mycotoxins, such as deoxynivalenol (DON), fumonisins B1 and B2 (FUMs), zearalenone (ZEN), T-2, and HT-2 toxins (T-2/HT-2) in maize samples harvested from two neighboring countries, Serbia and Croatia, during a four-year production period (2018-2021). The frequency and contamination level of examined Fusarium mycotoxins varied by maize year of production and could be linked to weather conditions per investigated country. Among them, FUMs were found to be the most common contaminants (84-100%) of maize in both Serbia and Croatia. Additionally, a critical assessment of Fusarium mycotoxins occurrence in the last 10 years (2012-2021), for both Serbia and Croatia, was done. Results pointed out the highest contamination of maize from 2014, especially with DON and ZEN, in connection to extreme levels of precipitation observed in both Serbia and Croatia, whereas FUMs occurred with high prevalence from each of the ten investigated years.

Prevalence and stakeholders’ perception of mycotoxins in the Ghanaian poultry feed value chain

The poultry sector in Ghana has the potential to contribute significantly to domestic food and nutrition security. There is limited information regarding the knowledge of feed industry stakeholders on the presence of mycotoxins in poultry feed. This work was aimed at assessing the prevalence of aflatoxin and fumonisin in poultry feed, and mycotoxins awareness among stakeholders of the poultry feed value chain in Ghana. Three hundred and fifty (350) respondents consisting of 255 commercial poultry farmers, 85 feed processors and 16 feed vendors were involved in the study. AgraStrip® Quantitative test from RomerLab, USA was used to quantify total fumonisin and aflatoxin levels in the prepared feed samples. The study revealed that commercial feed producers, feed mills operators and on-farm feed processors are the three main sources of feed and ingredients for commercial poultry farmers in Ghana. The study identified a high level of mycotoxin contamination of feed and ingredients. Feed samples from the commercial feed processors recorded significantly lower aflatoxin levels (21.63+7.05 ppb, p&lt;0.008). However, the threshold of 15 ppb for the Ghana Standards Authority, FAO/WHO maximum permissible limit of 30 ppb and EU regulatory limit of 20 ppb for poultry feeds were exceeded by 70% of all the samples. Fumonisin levels were less than the 30mg/kg FDA guidance levels for maize and maize by-products intended for consumption by breeding poultry. From the study, a majority of the farmers (85%), vendors (87.5%) and all of the feed processors have their own feed storage facilities or warehouses. Storage problems identified by these stakeholders included pest infestation and mold development, which usually occur after a few weeks of storage to the end of the storage period. Sanitation was poor along the feed chain, particularly during feed formulation and storage. Awareness of mycotoxins and their effect on animal and human health was low among the respondents. Some of those who have heard about aflatoxins were not aware of what it is and its effect on the health of humans and animals. This threatens the management of mycotoxins in the poultry feed chain. Key words: aflatoxin, fumonisin, mycotoxin contamination, mycotoxin awareness, sanitation, poultry feed, feed processors

Co-Occurrence of Mycotoxins in Feed for Cattle, Pigs, Poultry, and Sheep in Navarra, a Region of Northern Spain.

Mycotoxins, toxic compounds produced by fungi on raw materials, such as cereals, represent a serious health hazard. Animals are exposed to them mainly through the ingestion of contaminated feed. This study presents data about the presence and co-occurrence of nine mycotoxins: aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, and G2, ochratoxins A and B, zearalenone (ZEA), deoxynivalenol (DON), and sterigmatocystin (STER), in 400 samples of compound feed for cattle, pigs, poultry, and sheep (100 samples each) collected in Spain (2019-2020). Aflatoxins, ochratoxins, and ZEA were quantified using a previously validated HPLC method using fluorescence detection; whereas DON and STER were quantified using ELISA. Moreover, the obtained results were compared with those obtained in this country and published in the last 5 years. The mycotoxin presence in Spanish feed, especially for ZEA and DON, has been demonstrated. The maximum individual levels found were: AFB1: 6.9 µg/kg in a sample of feed for poultry; OTA: 65.5 µg/kg in a sample of feed for pigs, DON: 887 µg/kg in a sample of feed for sheep, and ZEA: 816 µg/kg in a sample of feed for pigs. Nevertheless, regulated mycotoxins appear, in general, at levels below those regulated by the EU; in fact, the percentage of samples containing concentrations above these limits was very low (from 0% for DON to 2.5% for ZEA). The co-occurrence of mycotoxins has also been demonstrated: 63.5% of the analyzed samples presented detectable levels of two to five mycotoxins. Due to the fact that the distribution of mycotoxins in raw materials can change greatly from year to year with climate conditions or market globalization, regular mycotoxin monitorization in feed is needed to prevent the integration of contaminated materials in the food chain.

Occurrence of zearalenone in dairy farms – A study on the determinants of exposure and risk assessment

The Azorean dairy industry is based on a semi-intensive model. Due to the few storage facilities and the large climatic fluctuations that characterize the Azores, the complete feed mixture (total mixed ration - TMR) is susceptible to the proliferation of a variety of fungi and mycotoxin contamination. Thus, chronic ingestion of these xenobiotics may lead to increased susceptibility to disease, loss of reproductive performance and, in the case of dairy cattle, decreased productivity and quality of milk produced. Since it is impossible to eliminate completely the presence of mycotoxins, it is essential to ensure the implementation of strategies to reduce their concentration in products intended for food and feed, as well as to monitor and control the levels present in food.This study aimed to evaluate the occurrence zearalenone (ZEA) in feed (TMR) in four dairy cattle farms on the Azorean Island of São Miguel and relate it to the occurrence of this mycotoxin in the milk produced, by associating several production and health indicators translated by the monthly milk contrast. To this end, the monthly milk contrast data, the determination of ZEA in the ingested feed and the (individual) milk samples from the four farms included in the study were used. Eighty-three (98.8%) of the milk samples under study had detectable ZEA levels (1.56 ± 1.36 μg/L), higher than reported in previous similar studies. Although ZEA concentration was not significantly associated with any production indicator analyzed (days in milk, age at calving, milk yield, protein content, butyrate content, somatic cell concentration and urea), it was found that the production regime and type of feed management is a major factor in the exposure of animals to high mycotoxin contents.Further studies are recommended to ensure continued monitoring and reduction of the risk associated with exposure of animals and humans to ZEA.

Determination of Regulated and Emerging Mycotoxins in Organic and Conventional Gluten-Free Flours by LC-MS/MS.

Gluten-free cereal products have grown in popularity in recent years as they are perceived as "healthier" alternatives and can be safely consumed by celiac patients, and people with gluten intolerance or wheat allergies. Molds that produce mycotoxins contaminate cereal crops, posing a threat to global food security. Maximum levels have been set for certain mycotoxins in cereal flours; however, little is known about the levels of emerging mycotoxins in these flours. The aim of this study was to develop an efficient, sensitive, and selective method for the detection of four emerging (beauvericin and enniatins A1, B, and B1) and three regulated (aflatoxin B1, zearalenone, and deoxynivalenol) mycotoxins in gluten-free flours. Ultrasound-assisted matrix solid-phase dispersion was used in the extraction of these mycotoxins from flour samples. The validated method was utilized for the LC-MS/MS analysis of conventional and organic wholegrain oat and rice flours. Six of the seven target mycotoxins were detected in these samples. Multi-mycotoxin contamination was found in all flour types, particularly in conventional wholegrain oat flour. Despite the low detection frequency in rice flour, one sample was found to contain zearalenone at a concentration of 83.2 μg/kg, which was higher than the level set by the European Commission for cereal flours. The emerging mycotoxins had the highest detection frequencies; enniatin B was present in 53% of the samples at a maximum concentration of 56 μg/kg, followed by enniatin B1 and beauvericin, which were detected in 46% of the samples, and at levels reaching 21 μg/kg and 10 μg/kg, respectively. These results highlight the need to improve the current knowledge and regulations on the presence of mycotoxins, particularly emerging ones, in gluten-free flours and cereal-based products.

Assessment of Agricultural Practices for Controlling Fusarium and Mycotoxins Contamination on Maize Grains: Exploratory Study in Maize Farms.

Maize is a significant crop to the global economy and a key component of food and feed, although grains and whole plants can often be contaminated with mycotoxins resulting in a general exposure of the population and animals. To investigate strategies for mycotoxins control at the grain production level, a pilot study and exploratory research were conducted in 2019 and 2020 to compare levels of mycotoxins in grains of plants treated with two fertilizers, F-BAC and Nefusoil, under real agricultural environment. The 1650 grains selected from the 33 samples were assessed for the presence of both Fusarium species and mycotoxins. Only fumonisins and deoxynivalenol were detected. Fumonisin B1 ranged from 0 to 2808.4 µg/Kg, and fumonisin B2 from 0 to 1041.9 µg/Kg, while deoxynivalenol variated from 0 to 465.8 µg/Kg. Nefusoil showed to be promising in regard to fumonisin control. Concerning the control of fungal contamination rate and the diversity of Fusarium species, no significant differences were found between the two treatments in any of the years. However, a tendency for was observed Nefusoil of lower values, probably due to the guaranteed less stressful conditions to the Fusarium spp. present in the soil, which do not stimulate their fumonisins production.

Segmentation of mycotoxin's contamination in maize: A deep learning approach

Maize is the main staple food and feed inSub-Saharan African countries and is highly susceptible to mycotoxin contamination under opportune environmental conditions. The presence of mycotoxins in maize affects the health of consumers and impacts global trade. According to the literature, the lack of mycotoxin awareness and the existence of strategies that are labor- and cost-prohibitive have led to the ongoing mycotoxin contamination in maize. Therefore, this study developed a cost-effective deep learning-based mobile application for segmentation of mycotoxin contamination in maize; using the RESNET152 model with performance rates of accuracy, test accuracy, epochs, time used, loss and image size results at 99.5%, 99.9%, 40, 07:30 min, and 0.051; and 460 respectively and performance evaluation metrics of F1-Score and sensitivity 0.62 and 0.997 respectively. During, the development processes, a total of 4800 images were collected and augmented. Then, the resulting 9600 data points were randomly shuffled and then split into the ratio of 70%:20:10% for training, validation, and testing datasets in order to avoid overfitting and biases in the resulting model. Lastly, the average result of model validation was 89% which was conducted among the farmers in the Maize area, Maize entrepreneurs, ICT experts, decision-makers from the Government, and policymakers. Therefore, the study recommends the collection of quality data which can be in the form of images, satellite, and biochemical properties of mycotoxin in order to enable researchers to analyze the contamination of mycotoxin and its linkages with environmental factors such as weather, soil characteristics, geographical position, and other unexpected events.

Bitkisel yağlarda mikotoksin varlığı

Vegetable oils are obtained from oil seeds and fruits and are widely used in the food, pharmaceutical, and chemical industries. In recent years, consumers' interest in vegetable oils has increased. The most important reason is that they are associated with health due to factors such as providing high energy, being a source of essential fatty acids, carrying fat-soluble vitamins, and containing compounds with antioxidant activity. On the other hand, they may contain some contaminants, such as mycotoxins. Vegetable oils can be contaminated with mycotoxins through raw materials exposed to unsuitable conditions. In this review, studies on the presence of mycotoxins in vegetable oils were examined. As a result, it has been observed that vegetable oils can be contaminated with mycotoxins such as aflatoxins, fumonisin, ochratoxin, deoxynivalenol, and zearalenone at different levels. It was concluded that contamination should be prevented and measures should be taken against mould growth and mycotoxin formation in raw materials.

YEAST AS AN ALTERNATIVE METHOD FOR FUNGAL CONTROL IN FOOD INDUSTRIES

Background. The quality of the final product in industries such as bakery, winemaking, brewing, and sausage and cheese making often deteriorates due to the development of food spoilage microbes. Filamentous fungi and their toxic metabolites, known as mycotoxins, are among the factors that significantly reduce food quality and seriously threaten food safety. Mycotoxins cause biochemical, physiological and pathological changes in living organisms and have a toxic effect even at low concentrations. The threat to food safety posed by pathogenic fungi and their metabolites has prompted the search for new ways to reduce their entry into the food chain. Results and conclusions. In recent years, much attention has been paid to biopreservation methods. Biopreservation refers to extending shelf life and enhancing food safety using indigenous or added microorganisms and their antimicrobial metabolites. Starter cultures of yeast antagonistic against toxigenic fungi can contribute to the product's safety, primarily by inhibiting the growth of pathogens during the fermentation process and improving the stability of this process. This review describes the main problems related to the occurrence of fungi in food industries and the strategies for reducing the presence of fungi and mycotoxins in food. Focus is placed in particular on the use of yeast as antifungal microorganisms tested for food bioprotection, and their mechanisms of action.

Occurrence of aflatoxins and fumonisins in maize grains harvested in the territory of Belgrade (R. Serbia) from 2018 to 2022

The aim of this study was to evaluate the occurrence of total aflatoxins (AFs) and type-B fumonisins (FBs) in 65 maize grain samples collected during harvest in 2018 (13 samples), 2019 (11 samples), 2020 (9 samples), 2021 (14 samples) and 2022 (18 samples) from different locations in suburb of Belgrade (Republic of Serbia). The average levels of AFs and FBs in mycotoxin-positive samples were 5.43 and 2910 ?g kg-1 (2018), 5.28 and 2710 ?g kg-1 (2019), 2.35 and 10980 ?g kg-1 (2020), 6.81 and 4950 ?g kg-1 (2021) and 5.32 and 20310 ?g kg-1 (2022), respectively. In 23.08% (2018), 18.18% (2019), 22.22% (2020), 64.29% (2021) and 27.78% (2022) of maize samples, the co-occurrence of AFs and FBs was established. The maximum limits of 10 ?g kg-1 for AFs in maize and 4000 ?g kg-1 for FBs in unprocessed maize prescribed by regulations of Serbia and the European Union were exceeded for AFs in 14.29% (2021) and 5.56% (2022) of maize samples and for FBs in 7.69% (2018), 66.67% (2020), 28.57% (2021) and 41.67% (2022) of maize samples. Multiple linear regression analyses showed a statistically significant influence of climate factors (air temperature, relative humidity and total rainfall) in July-September (2018-2022) on FBs levels. These results indicate the need for continuous monitoring of the health status of harvested maize grains and risk assessment of the potential presence of mycotoxins in the food chain to avoid adverse effects on human and animal health.