Presence Of Gender Differences Research Articles

Risk of Economic Violence: A New Quantification

This paper defines the first internationally comparable measure of the risk of economic violence to acknowledge its prevalence in different countries and its geographical and gender heterogeneity. Thanks to the availability of micro-data from the OECD/International Network on Financial Education survey, currently used to track financial literacy in different countries, we define a measure of the risk of economic violence (REV) that takes into consideration three macro-areas: (a) the risk of being prevented from acquiring and accumulating financial resources; (b) the risk of being unaware and not having access to personal and/or household financial resources; and (c) the risk of financial dependency. The definition of the new economic violence risk measure (REV) then allows us to verify with real data the presence of women’s greater exposure to the risk of economic violence and the presence of gender differences in the determinants of economic violence risk. Finally, we verify that financial literacy protects individuals from the risk of economic violence, without gender differences.

ИССЛЕДОВАНИЕ ВЗАИМОСВЯЗИ УРОВНЯ ТРЕВОЖНОСТИ И УЧЕБНОЙ МОТИВАЦИИ У ПОДРОСТКОВ

The influence of many external and internal factors, in particular psycho-emotional state, undoubtedly affects the cognitive, behavioral activity and the quality of learning of schoolchildren. Especially in adolescence, when the body undergoes great changes in both physiological and psychological development. The driving force in any behavioral activity is motivation. Studying and understanding the structure of schoolchildren's learning motivation makes it possible to develop new, scientifically based, effective pedagogical and psychological techniques for the correction and regulation of school performance. This paper studies the relationship between the properties of nervous processes, personality and situational anxiety with the structure of academic motivation of schoolchildren depending on gender identity. The study was conducted in secondary schools of Yakutsk among pupils of 7-8 grades aged 13.96±0.11 years in the number of 58 people (30 girls and 28 boys). The following methods were used in the study: determining the level of situational and personality anxiety C.D. Spielberger, the test "Diagnosis of the structure of schoolchildren's learning motivation by M.V. Matyukhina", measuring complex visual-motor reactions and tapping test in the APC "NS-Psychotest" (Ivanovo). The obtained results indicate that the largest number of schoolchildren is in a state of high level of anxiety. In this case, the properties of nervous processes correlate in girls with the level of situational anxiety, in boys - with the level of personal anxiety. The presence of gender differences in the dominance of educational motives has been revealed. Among girls the most significant are motivations not related to learning activities, among boys - related to the learning process itself. Also, the obtained results indicate the presence of reliable relationships between the level of anxiety and types of learning motivation. The greatest number of correlations was observed among boys.

The Success of Preaching Amid Gender Issues

Preaching in the era of globalization has become an essential aspect of human life transformation. Humans, with their complex nature, must be capable of adapting to an increasingly dynamic era. Gender differences should ideally enable religious individuals to embrace diversity, which supports success in the preaching process. However, in its actualization within society, the presence of gender differences becomes an inevitable issue and problematic. Preaching for every steward of the Earth will only succeed if gender equality issues are not brought up.

REPRESENTASI PATRIARKI DALAM FILM “YUNI”

Patriarchy in Indonesia is still strong, as can be seen from high cases violence against women. Patriarchy occurs from the presence of gender differences. This research is made to discover how patriarchy is represented in the movie ‘Yuni’. ‘Yuni’ is a movie with the setting taken in Serang, West Java, produced by FourColor Films. The movie ‘Yuni’ reveals the practice of patriarchy in everyday life in Indonesia. The type of research used is descriptive qualitative, using a semiotic analysis method by Roland Barthes with scenes from ‘Yuni’ film as the subject of research and analyzed representation of patriarchy in the film ‘Yuni’ as the object of research. The research results in showing that patriarchy is implemented through religion and culture, and that the cause of patriarchy is materialism. Furthermore, 5 aspects such as patriarchy controls women's sexuality, patriarchy limits women's education, patriarchy limits women's job in the domestic sphere, patriarchy encourages early marriage and patriarchy limits women's movement and rights.

Gender characteristics of patients with arterial hypertension

Despite the prevalence of arterial hypertension among both sexes, there are data on the presence of gender diff erences in its formation and course.The purpose of the study: to identify gender characteristics in the clinical and biochemical status of patients suff ering from stage 1 and 2 of arterial hypertension.Material and methods. 80 patients of the second mature age with confi rmed arterial hypertension were examined. The patients were divided into 2 groups: the fi rst group consisted of 44 patients with stage 1 arterial hypertension (11 men and 33 women), the second group consisted of 36 patients with stage 2 disease (25 men and 11 women). All patients underwent a biochemical blood test; the glomerular fi ltration rate, the thickness of the Intima-media complex of the common carotid artery with the processing of the results by the Smirnov–Kolmogorov test were determined.Results. With the stage I arterial hypertension in both sexes, the level of blood pressure was corresponding to it. With stage II, the blood pressure in men corresponded to the level of the 1st stage, and in women to the level of the 2nd stage arterial hypertension. The level of total cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol in all cases exceeded the normal level, prevailing in both groups in women. This was accompanied by an imbalance in the levels of thromboxane B2 and 6-ketoprostaglandin F1α at stage I hypertension, which was more pronounced in women and increased with the higher stage of the disease. The glomerular fi ltration rate in men of both groups was intact. In women, it was reduced at the onset of the disease, and kept decreasing at stage II. The width of the intima-media complex in women prevailed over this indicator in men at stage I and further increased at stage II.Conclusion. From the start of the development of arterial hypertension, women have had more pronounced and faster progressive lipid, hemostatic, renal and sclerotic changes compared to men.

The Influence of Small-Scale Sporting Events on Participants’ Intentions to Recommend the Host City

Tourism, including sports tourism, is an important driver of social and economic development. Sports tourism events, and small-scale sporting events in particular, are a powerful resource for promoting tourism in the host city, as a viable way of developing sustainable tourism in the local community. This study aims to analyse the impact of functional quality, outcome quality, satisfaction, and perceived value on intentions to recommend the host city among participants in a small-scale sporting event. A total of 866 runners in a 21-km recreational race participated in this study. A multi-item scale was used and a confirmatory factor analysis of the model was carried out, and the presence of gender differences in the relationships was ascertained using a multigroup analysis. The results revealed a direct effect of functional quality and satisfaction, and an indirect effect of outcome quality and value on intentions to recommend the city. Intention to recommend the city and functional quality showed differences between males and females. In conclusion, managing quality is a key strategy in encouraging participants in small-scale sporting events to recommend the host city.

Exploring gender differences in medication consumption and mortality in a cohort of hypertensive patients in Northern Italy

BackgroundThis paper aims to assess the presence of gender differences in medication use and mortality in a cohort of patients affected exclusively by hypertension, in 193 municipalities in the Lombardy Region (Northern Italy), including Milan's metropolitan area. MethodsA retrospective cohort study was conducted (N = 232,507) querying administrative healthcare data and the Register of Causes of Death. Hypertensive patients (55.4% women; 44.6% men) in 2017 were identified; gender differences in medication use (treatment, 80% compliance) and deaths (from all causes and CVDs) were assessed at two-year follow-ups in logistic regression models adjusted for age class, census-based deprivation index, nationality, and pre-existing health conditions. Models stratified by age, deprivation index, and therapeutic compliance were also tested.ResultsOverall, women had higher odds of being treated, but lower odds of therapeutic compliance, death from all causes, and death from CVDs. All the outcomes had clear sex differences across age classes, though not between different levels of deprivation. Comparing patients with medication adherence, women had lower odds of death from all causes than men (with a narrowing protective effect as age increased), while no gender differences emerged in non-compliant patients.ConclusionsAmong hypertensive patients, gender differences in medication consumption and mortality have been found, but the extent to which these are attributable to a female socio-cultural disadvantage is questionable. The findings reached, with marked age-dependent effects in the outcomes investigated, suggest a prominent role for innate sex differences in biological susceptibility to the disease, whereby women would take advantage of the protective effects of their innate physiological characteristics, especially prior to the beginning of menopause.

СРАВНИТЕЛЬНЫЙ АНАЛИЗ ПОКАЗАТЕЛЕЙ ФИЗИЧЕСКОГО РАЗВИТИЯ И ФИЗИЧЕСКОЙ ПОДГОТОВЛЕННОСТИ ДЕВОЧЕК И МАЛЬЧИКОВ 7-8 ЛЕТ, ЗАНИМАЮЩИХСЯ ЛЕГКОЙ АТЛЕТИКОЙ

The research purpose is to conduct a comparative analysis of physical development and physical fitness indicators of 7-8 years old girls and boys engaged in athletics. Methods and organization of the research. To achieve the purpose, we used the following methods: analysis and generalization of scientific and methodological literature, anthropometry, integral assessment of physical health according to the method of S.V. Khrushchev, the method of functional tests, the method of control tests, methods of mathematical statistics. The research was conducted at the Sports School of Olympic reserve "Tasma" in Kazan. 57 children (37 boys and 20 girls) aged 7-8 years took part in it. The results of young athletes were compared with age norms of physical development and physical fitness indicators. The research results and their discussion. A total of 1,425 measurements were carried out. It was found that the indicators of physical development and physical fitness of the studied athletes aged 7-8 years old correspond to age norms. The average level of physical health was recorded in 75% of girls and 56.8% of boys. In terms of body length, systolic blood pressure, coordination abilities, boys at the age of 7-8 years old have significantly higher results compared to their female peers. At the same time, boys have lower indicators of flexibility. There were no statistically significant differences in other indicators of physical development and physical fitness, as well as in the rapid assessment of physical health. Conclusion. The results obtained confirm the presence of gender differences in the indicators of physical development and physical fitness of 7-8 years old athletes engaged in athletics. Accordingly, this should be taken into account when planning and organizing the training process with this contingent.

Susceptibility of Women to Cardiovascular Disease and the Prevention Potential of Mind-Body Intervention by Changes in Neural Circuits and Cardiovascular Physiology.

Women have been reported to be more vulnerable to the development, prognosis and mortality of cardiovascular diseases, yet the understanding of the underlying mechanisms and strategies to overcome them are still relatively undeveloped. Studies show that women’s brains are more sensitive to factors affecting mental health such as depression and stress than men’s brains. In women, poor mental health increases the risk of cardiovascular disease, and conversely, cardiovascular disease increases the incidence of mental illness such as depression. In connection with mental health and cardiovascular health, the presence of gender differences in brain activation, cortisol secretion, autonomic nervous system, vascular health and inflammatory response has been observed. This connection suggests that strategies to manage women’s mental health can contribute to preventing cardiovascular disease. Mind–body interventions, such as meditation, yoga and qigong are forms of exercise that strive to actively manage both mind and body. They can provide beneficial effects on stress reduction and mental health. They are also seen as structurally and functionally changing the brain, as well as affecting cortisol secretion, blood pressure, heart rate variability, immune reactions and reducing menopausal symptoms, thus positively affecting women’s cardiovascular health. In this review, we investigate the link between mental health, brain activation, HPA axis, autonomic nervous system, blood pressure and immune system associated with cardiovascular health in women and discuss the effects of mind–body intervention in modulating these factors.

Die Variable „Geschlecht“ im Forschungsprozess: Anforderungen in den Antragsrichtlinien von Förderinstitutionen im Gesundheitswesen

BackgroundWhen addressing the variable “gender” in health research designs, a distinction is made between biological (“sex”) and sociocultural or psychosocial aspects (“gender”). In health research, it is important to avoid systematic errors that may result when gender aspects are inappropriately or not sufficiently addressed (so-called gender bias). A gender bias occurs, for instance, when the presence of gender differences is assumed without empirical evidence or when research data that was generated from samples of male participants is automatically applied to women. Funding institutions can create incentives for researchers to integrate gender-sensitive analyses into their research projects and to consider the potential influence of the “gender” variable. The aim of this study was to explore which explicit requirements concerning gender aspects applicants to German funding institutions in the various health sectors need to meet in their research designs. MethodsFrom March to June 2019, we researched funding institutions in the health sector at the German federal level. We examined the funding guidelines of each identified institution in light of their requirements for applicants to take gender aspects into consideration in their research. We explored this in a two-step procedure (online document search and e-mail contact). ResultsWe examined 18 institutions. Information on the requirements for applicants to address gender aspects in their research projects was identified for four institutions: the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research, the German Federal Ministry of Health, the German Research Foundation, and the Volkswagen Stiftung. In particular, the consideration of gender aspects for planned research projects was used as an evaluation criterion in the institutions’ application guidelines available online. If considered relevant for a planned research project, the consideration of gender aspects affects project planning, implementation and evaluation of results.Eight institutions had no such requirements. For the remaining six institutions, we were not able to find any such information, neither by document research nor through e-mail contact. Discussion and conclusionOnly a few funding institutions in the health sector have so far included requirements regarding the consideration of the “gender” variable in health research in their application guidelines. Furthermore, the funding institutions’ requirements are somewhat heterogeneous and need standardization. Funding institutions in the health sector could identify research needs and set new research priorities in order to expand the empirical evidence on gender aspects in the various health sectors and to increase the social benefit of the scientific results obtained. In this way, applicants can be sensitized and encouraged to consider gender aspects in their research projects and, if necessary, to conduct them in a gender-differentiated manner.

Presence of Gender Difference in Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scores Among the Allied Health Sciences Students- A Cross-Sectional Study

The present study was undertaken to assess the gender differences in depression, anxiety and stress among the undergraduate allied health sciences studentsas few studies exist on stress assessment in allied health sciences students that bring out the gender differences in stress, depression, and anxiety. This is a cross-sectional study that was conducted on the First- and secondyear students of 18-22 years of age after obtaining informed consent and Institutional ethical clearance. DASS questionnaire was used to assess the depression, anxiety and stress levels in the Allied health sciences students and to find out the existence of difference of scores in the male and female students. In the present study, a significantly high percentage of male students had higher scores in depression, anxiety and stress compared to the female students. Our study highlights the need for implementation of effective counseling and relaxation techniques in order to decrease their stress level, to enhance their academic and clinical performance.

DETERMINATION OF PERSONAL AND SITUATION DETERMINANTS LAZINESS

This article contains the result of the theoretical and empirical study of personality and situational factors of laziness among young people and the presence of gender differences in the concept of laziness.
 Laziness is synonymous with a lack of motivation, unwillingness to do anything. Situational laziness is more of a temporary nature of the lack of desire to do something. Personal laziness is a set of determined human characteristics that attend it throughout life.
 Analysis of the results of self-assessment of laziness found that only 20% of respondents consider themselves to be a lazy person, while the other 80% consider themselves as hardworking.
 The most important personal determinant of laziness (in 83% of persons) were features of physical and psychological state. Namely: tiredness, desire to rest, drowsiness, no mood, the poor state of feeling, boredom, etc. Other determinants such as lack of opportunities, lack of interest, external pressure are less important and cause personal laziness in single cases.
 The personal and situational determinants of the laziness that have been investigated have different nature and manifestations. We believe that the features of the body condition can not be included in the group of personal determinants of laziness.
 Opportunity deficits (lack of perseverance, lack of skills and time, difficult task, other distracting problems) can be attributed to the personal determinants of laziness.
 Areas of maximum demonstration of laziness are (in descending order): professional (educational) activities, household chores, cases under pressure, and lack cases.
 Based on the analysis of the results of the study of self-regulation of laziness, we can speak about differences in the concept of laziness between men and women."Male laziness" is perceived as a feeling of unwillingness, apathy, inaction, and focused on the inner world and feelings. "Female laziness" is conditioned by the situation. More demonstrated as outward orientation, responsibility, feelings of guilt.
 Based on the results, it is planned to develop a program of correctional work based on a differentiated approach to people, taking into account factors that influence the manifestation of laziness.

May gender influence the quality of life in children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes?

IntroductionAppropriate health-related quality of life (HRQOL) in children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes constitutes one of the most important factors that determine treatment effectiveness. There are numerous studies which tackle the issue of the relationship between HRQOL and various clinical and demographic factors, including gender. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to assess HRQOL and identify factors by which it may be affected, with particular emphasis on gender.Material and methodsThe study group included 197 girls and boys (13.9±2.33 years old) with a history of type 1 diabetes (>1 year) treated with the use of insulin pumps. PedsQL Diabetes Module 3.0 questionnaire was used in the assessment of HRQOL. Multivariate linear regression with gender as a covariate was used to investigate the relationship between total PedsQL score and selected variables associated with patient characteristics, insulin dosage and the control of glycemia. Moreover, the presence of gender differences was verified in terms of variables which significantly affected HRQOL.ResultsSignificantly higher results were observed in boys as regards the total PedsQL score (70.8±11.91 vs 62.4±13.91; P<0.001) and individual subscales of the questionnaire (except “Worry”). Regression analysis demonstrated the presence of a significant negative relationship between HRQOL assessment and HbA1c concentrations, WHtR value and the frequency of hypoglycemic episodes. However, it was noted that better HRQOL was observed in boys than in girls, regardless of the quality of the metabolic control of diabetes, regular pattern of adipose tissue distribution and experiencing hyperglycemic episodes.ConclusionFemale gender was an independent factor which adversely affected HRQOL. Other factors which negatively influenced HRQOL included poor metabolic control of diabetes, central distribution of adipose tissue and frequent episodes of hyperglycemia. It seems necessary to focus also on other factors that may potentially influence HRQOL of patients with type 1 diabetes.

Gender peculiarities of paranoid schizophrenia in the modern context

The purpose of the work is to study the clinical-psychopathological and social-psychological features of patients with paranoid schizophrenia in terms of gender aspect. Materials and methods. The article analyzes peculiarities of clinical and psychopathological phenomenology and social support in 53 men and 49 women with paranoid schizophrenia who were in inpatient treatment at the Vinnytsia Regional Psychoneurological Hospital Academic Yushchenko Memorial in 2015–2018. Results. It was established that the most common symptoms of paranoid schizophrenia were expressed and significant changes in the general behavioral quality (100.0 %), negative symptoms (96.1%) and persistent delusional symptomatology (93.1 %), while chronic paranoid symptoms (66.7 %) and delusion of mastery, influence or inactivity, and delusional perception (61.8 %), as well as verbal hallucinations (58.8 %) were less common. At the same time, men showed significantly more symptoms of alienation of mental processes (34.0 %versus 16.3 %, P < 0.05), persistent delusional ideas (98.1 % versus 87.8 %, P < 0.05), neologisms, sperrung, incoherent speech (24.5 %versus 8.2 %), catatonic behavior (13.2 % versus 2.0 %, P < 0.05) and negative symptoms (100.0 % versus 91.8 %, P < 0.05). Men had significantly greater severity of delusion (5.45 ± 0.82 points versus 4.96 ± 1.19 points, P < 0.05), thought disorder (4.42 ± 1.01 points versus 3.71 ± 0.74 points, P < 0.01), all the negative symptoms, motor retardation (3.74 ± 1.13 points versus 2.96 ± 1.37 points, P < 0.01), a decline in insight into illness (5.30 ± 1.07 points versus 4.80 ± 1.19 points, P < 0.05), disturbance of volition (4.49 ± 0.95 points versus 3.92 ± 0.86 points, P < 0.01), preoccupation (4.70 ± 0.82 points versus 4.27 ± 0.76 points, P < 0.05). Patients with paranoid schizophrenia ranked low on the disability scale, which corresponded to apparent dysfunction, and men showed significantly lower rates on all the scales. Correlation revealed relations between the symptoms of schizophrenia severity and disability rates. Patients with paranoid schizophrenia were characterized by high rates of depression (in general 58.39 ± 14.64 points, men – 63.34 ± 13.50 points, women – 53.04 ± 14.05 points, P <0.01), trait anxiety (48.83 ± 10.89 points, 51.74 ± 9.20 points, and 45.69 ± 11.77 points accordingly, P < 0.05), state anxiety (44.98 ± 7.44 points, 47.49 ± 5.54 points and 42.27 ± 8.30 points, P < 0,01), well-being (32.04 ± 4.37 points, 30.72 ± 3.47 points and 33.47 ± 4.82 points, P < 0.01), activity (29.03 ± 3.75 points, 28.04 ± 2.78 points, 30.10 ± 4.35 points, P < 0,01), mood (29.16 ± 4.46 points, 30.17 ± 3.50 points and 28.06 ± 5.12 points, P < 0.01). Patients with paranoid schizophrenia had a low family (0.47 ± 0.66 points, 0.36 ± 0.68 points and 0.59 ± 0.61 points, P < 0.05), friends (0.79 ± 0.74 points, 0.66 ± 0.78 points and 0.94 ± 0.66 points, P < 0.05) and significant others (0.56 ± 0.74 points, 0.40 ± 0.66 points and 0.73 ± 0.78 points, P < 0.05) social support. Conclusions. The obtained data testify to the presence of gender differences in clinical-psychopathological manifestations and social-psychological characteristics of patients with paranoid schizophrenia.

The Role of Grit in Determining Engagement and Academic Outcomes for University Students

The concept of grit as described by Duckworth (Journal of personality and social psychology 92:1087, 2007) has captured the attention of educators and researchers alike. A measure of a student’s ability to effortfully persist in the face of struggle, grit is proposed to be an important characteristic required for students to succeed academically (Duckworth in Journal of personality and social psychology 92:1087, 2007). Some evidence suggests that grit has a positive relationship with a range of academic outcomes, and yet others argue that grit offers little in terms of predictive value for understanding academic outcomes. In addition, there is conflicting evidence about the presence of gender differences in grit, and very little research around the role of being the first member of the family to attend university in the development of grit. In order to address conflicting findings about the importance and correlates of grit, and to explore the role of engagement in the relationship between grit and academic outcomes, a cross sectional survey study was conducted. The current research measured grit, engagement and academic productivity among 395 Australian university students. Findings suggest that there is no difference in grit between genders, although this cannot be concluded with certainty due to a large imbalance of male to female participants. It also appeared that being the first in family to attend university was associated with an increased level of the grit factor ‘effort’. There was a positive relationship between grit, engagement and academic productivity. Further analysis revealed that engagement mediated the relationship between grit and productivity, suggesting that a person with higher grit is more likely to have higher engagement, and that engagement leads to greater academic productivity. These findings highlight the relevance of grit as a desirable student characteristic, and the importance of engagement in the grit-productivity relationship.

COMORBIDITIES IN PATIENTS WITH ISCHEMIC HEART DISEASE: GENDER DIFFERENCES

Background. The problem of comorbidity in ischemic heart disease (IHD) has always been given increased attention, due to the high social significance of cardiovascular diseases. However, often the problem solution involved studying cardiac pathology along with concomitant diseases, such as diabetes mellitus, pulmonary or kidneys pathology, etc., but not a comprehensive approach, which takes into account all available comorbidities. An important issue that should be considered in the shift to the personalized medicine is the presence of gender differences, which varies greatly and depends on different correlations with specific comorbidities. Aim. To study gender differences in comorbidities in patients with IHD. Material and methods. 742 patients with IHD examined in the Research Institute for Complex Issues of Cardiovascular Diseases in 2011 before elective coronary by-pass surgery were included into the study. All the patients were divided into 2 groups depending on the gender: Group 1 – 147 females, Group 2 – 595 males. Results. The obtained results reported that women were commonly older than men and more often had excess body weight (p 0.05), wherein the average level of comorbidity score prevailed among men (70.4%) and women (66%). Conclusion. Detection of comorbidities in IHD patients based on gender differences is advisable to improve both the immediate results of surgical management and further preventive measures.

Research-Based Assessment of Students’ Beliefs about Experimental Physics: When is Gender a Factor?

The existence of gender differences in student performance on conceptual assessments and their responses to attitudinal assessments has been repeatedly demonstrated. This difference is often present in students' preinstruction responses and persists in their postinstruction responses. However, one area in which the presence of gender differences has not been extensively explored is undergraduate laboratory courses. For example, one of the few laboratory focused research-based assessments, the Colorado Learning Attitudes about Science Survey for Experimental Physics (E-CLASS), has not been tested for the existence of gender differences in students' responses. Here, we utilize a national data set of responses to the E-CLASS to determine if they demonstrate significant gender differences. We also investigate how these differences vary along multiple student and course demographic slices, including course level (first-year vs.\ beyond-first-year) and major (physics vs.\ non-physics). We observe a gender gap in pre- and postinstruction E-CLASS scores in the aggregate data both for the overall score and for most items individually. However, for some subpopulations (e.g., beyond-first-year students) the size or even existence of the gender gap depends on another dimension (e.g., student major). We also find that for all groups the gap in postinstruction scores vanishes or is greatly reduced when controlling for preinstruction scores, course level, and student major.

Influence of Childhood Abuse and Gender on Relationship Adjustment

This study investigates the presence of gender differences among men and women who experienced childhood abuse in regards to their romantic relationship adjustment as adults. Not only may child abuse prevalence rates differ between genders, but also experiencing childhood abuse may have varying gender-based effects on physical and mental health, coping strategies, future perpetrating behaviors, and adult intimate relationships. Attachment theory is a theoretical orientation that could help explain and connect the effects of childhood abuse on adult relationships. This study utilized measurements of dyadic consensus, cohesion, affectional expression, and satisfaction; results supported the notion that in adult relationships, gender differences do not exist among a clinical population. The discussion relates to implications for clinicians working with survivors of childhood abuse.

Foreign Capital and Gender Differences in Promotions: Evidence from Large Brazilian Manufacturing Firms

(ProQuest: ... denotes formulae omitted.)Widespread consensus asserts that occupational segmentation is the chief determinant for gender differences in wages in the Brazilian labor market (see, for example, Oliveira 2001). Although women represent 39 percent of the formal workforce in Brazil, they amount to only 23 percent of the employees in the sectors that pay relatively higher wages in 2004. As well, the predominance of segmentation increases if one restricts attention to managerial positions, of which women hold only 14 percent. This suggests that limited promotion prospects for women in the Brazilian job market may present barriers to their promotion to the upper rungs of the corporate ladder.This paper contributes to the literature by examining data from the larg- est firms of the Brazilian manufacturing industry. In particular, our goal is to determine whether obstacles to women's ascension exist by tracking the amount of time it takes for a woman to get a promotion to a managerial posi- tion. The aim is to complement the literature on gender differences in promo- tions, whose papers mainly focus on computing the promotion rates. Time to promotion offers a different angle in that samples with a large time span could well present similar likelihoods of promotion for both genders even if the promotion durations are different. We construct the duration variable by following from January 1996 to December 2005 every individual who enters the Annual Report of Social Information (RAIS) database between January 1991 and December 1995. We denote as nonpromoted the individuals who do not obtain a promotion to a managerial position within the sample (that is, the right-censored observations), whereas we assign duration zero to the workers who already are in managerial positions in January 1996. Accordingly, we label as promoted the individuals within our sample who rise to a managerial position (that is, those with uncensored positive durations). Investigating dif- ferences in promotions is particularly difficult because observationally simi- lar male and female workers may display equal promotion rates and durations even in the presence of gender differences (for example, promotions may differ in quality).As far as we know, this is the first study to examine gender differences in promotions using microdata from a developing country. Apart from the obvious interest in finding whether the main stylized facts hold in a Latin American country, we were also motivated by the quality and availability of the Brazilian data. In contrast to the many studies that employ data from individual firms (see, for example, Cabral, Ferber, and Green 1981; Gerhart and Milkovich 1989; Baker, Gibbs, and Holmstrom 1994), our study relies on a homogeneous sample of recently hired workers from the Brazilian manufac- turing industry in the period from 1996 to 2005. Our data set is particularly convenient. First, the data include a wide array of controls for worker and firm characteristics. Second, unlike Blau and deVaro (2007), we observe multiple workers per establishment at different occupations and hierarchical levels as well as their career paths in terms of occupation and wage. A potential limi- tation is that our data set does not include any direct measure of on-the-job productivity and hence we must come up with indirect controls.Interestingly, we find that there are significantly fewer gender differences in the time to promotion within foreign-owned firms than within domestic firms in the Brazilian manufacturing industry. Our findings complement to some extent the literature on the differences between multinationals and domestic firms (Doms and Jensen 2006; Greene and others 2009) as well as the evidence that gender differences may depend on the nature of the firm.1 We argue that such gender differences are consistent with statistical discrimi- nation and self-selection. We reason as follows. Suppose there are relatively more women than men who prefer to dedicate more time to their family than to their careers. …

Foreign Capital and Gender Differences in Promotions: Evidence from Large Brazilian Manufacturing Firms

Foreign Capital and Gender Differences in Promotions:Evidence from Large Brazilian Manufacturing Firms Danilo Coelho, Marcelo Fernandes, and Miguel N. Foguel Widespread consensus asserts that occupational segmentation is the chief determinant for gender differences in wages in the Brazilian labor market (see, for example, Oliveira 2001). Although women represent 39 percent of the formal workforce in Brazil, they amount to only 23 percent of the employees in the sectors that pay relatively higher wages in 2004. As well, the predominance of segmentation increases if one restricts attention to managerial positions, of which women hold only 14 percent. This suggests that limited promotion prospects for women in the Brazilian job market may present barriers to their promotion to the upper rungs of the corporate ladder. This paper contributes to the literature by examining data from the largest firms of the Brazilian manufacturing industry. In particular, our goal is to determine whether obstacles to women’s ascension exist by tracking the amount of time it takes for a woman to get a promotion to a managerial position. The aim is to complement the literature on gender differences in promotions, whose papers mainly focus on computing the promotion rates. Time to promotion offers a different angle in that samples with a large time span could well present similar likelihoods of promotion for both genders even if [End Page 55] the promotion durations are different. We construct the duration variable by following from January 1996 to December 2005 every individual who enters the Annual Report of Social Information (RAIS) database between January 1991 and December 1995. We denote as nonpromoted the individuals who do not obtain a promotion to a managerial position within the sample (that is, the right-censored observations), whereas we assign duration zero to the workers who already are in managerial positions in January 1996. Accordingly, we label as promoted the individuals within our sample who rise to a managerial position (that is, those with uncensored positive durations). Investigating differences in promotions is particularly difficult because observationally similar male and female workers may display equal promotion rates and durations even in the presence of gender differences (for example, promotions may differ in quality). As far as we know, this is the first study to examine gender differences in promotions using microdata from a developing country. Apart from the obvious interest in finding whether the main stylized facts hold in a Latin American country, we were also motivated by the quality and availability of the Brazilian data. In contrast to the many studies that employ data from individual firms (see, for example, Cabral, Ferber, and Green 1981; Gerhart and Milkovich 1989; Baker, Gibbs, and Holmstrom 1994), our study relies on a homogeneous sample of recently hired workers from the Brazilian manufacturing industry in the period from 1996 to 2005. Our data set is particularly convenient. First, the data include a wide array of controls for worker and firm characteristics. Second, unlike Blau and deVaro (2007), we observe multiple workers per establishment at different occupations and hierarchical levels as well as their career paths in terms of occupation and wage. A potential limitation is that our data set does not include any direct measure of on-the-job productivity and hence we must come up with indirect controls. Interestingly, we find that there are significantly fewer gender differences in the time to promotion within foreign-owned firms than within domestic firms in the Brazilian manufacturing industry. Our findings complement to some extent the literature on the differences between multinationals and domestic firms (Doms and Jensen 2006; Greene and others 2009) as well as the evidence that gender differences may depend on the nature of the firm.1 [End Page 56] We argue that such gender differences are consistent with statistical discrimination and self-selection. We reason as follows. Suppose there are relatively more women than men who prefer to dedicate more time to their family than to their careers. Berk (2001) shows that gender differences in average career concern do not ensure statistical discrimination against the group with lower average career concern if employees optimally choose which jobs to apply for. A career-minded woman who applies for a job in a firm...