Pre-release Training Research Articles

The Effects of Feeding Unpredictability and Classical Conditioning on Pre-Release Training of White-Lipped Peccary (Mammalia, Tayassuidae)

Some authors have suggested that environmental unpredictability, accompanied by some sort of signal for behavioral conditioning, can boost activity or foster exploratory behavior, which may increase post-release success in re-introduction programs. Thus, using white-lipped peccary (Tayassu pecari), a vulnerable Neotropical species, as a model, we evaluated an unpredictable feeding schedule. Associating this with the effect of classical conditioning on behavioral activities, we assessed the inclusion of this approach in pre-release training protocols. The experimental design comprised predictable feeding phases (control phases: C1, C2 and C3) and unpredictable feeding phases (U1- signaled and U2- non-signaled). The animals explored more during the signaled and non-signaled unpredictable phases and during the second control phase (C2) than during the other two predictable phases (C1 and C3). The peccaries also spent less time feeding during the signaled unpredictable phase (U1) and the following control phase (C2) than during the other phases. Moreover, they spent more time in aggressive encounters during U1 than the other experimental phases. However, the animals did not show differences in the time they spent on affiliative interactions or in the body weight change during the different phases. The signaled unpredictability, besides improving foraging behavior, showing a prolonged effect on the next control phase (C2), also increased the competition for food. The signaled feeding unpredictability schedule, mimicking wild conditions by eliciting the expression of naturalistic behaviors in pre-release training, may be essential to fully prepare them for survival in the wild.

Activity Budgets and Time Treatments of Lion (<i>Panthera leo</i>) Cubs under Human Imprinting at Antelope Park, Gweru, Zimbabwe

In African Lions Panthera leo , human imprinting was suggested as one option of pre-release training of orphaned cubs, but success of this option has rarely been explored. This study assesses the success of human imprinting on captive-bred lion cubs at Antelope Park in Gweru, Zimbabwe. Activity diversity, activity budgets and response to non-wild objects were compared in three levels of human imprinting (high, medium and low) using the focal technique. Six lion cubs were used for this study (two in each imprinting category). Data were collected during early morning, mid-morning and late afternoon sessions from October to November 2011. In the three levels of human imprinting, resting and locomotion had the largest proportion of time compared to playing, visual exploration, feeding, human interaction and hunting. Lion cubs with low imprinting displayed the most “hunting instincts” and aggressive behaviour toward humans and vehicles, compared to those with high and medium imprinting levels. At the age of the cubs under study (9-13 months) hunting was not expected to be successful, but the display of some hunting instincts was encouraging in the high and medium imprinted cubs. Although the small sample size used in this study and the need to continue monitoring the cubs restrict conclusions that can be made from this assessment, such early signs of the success of human imprinting could be encouraging for human imprinting.

圈养大熊猫野化培训期的生境选择特征

大熊猫(<em>Ailuropoda melanoleuca</em>)是我国特有的珍稀物种,也是世界上最濒危的野生动物之一。为了将人工繁育的部分大熊猫个体重引入其历史分布区或复壮野生种群,中国保护大熊猫研究中心从2003年开始进行圈养大熊猫的野外放归工作,通过野化培训以提高圈养大熊猫适应和选择野外环境的能力。对野化培训大熊猫"淘淘"的生境选择研究表明:该野化培训大熊猫幼仔经常活动于新笋密度较大的区域[生境与对照:(2.68±1.14)对(1.58±0.66)],却避开成竹密度过大[(9.91±2.51)对(12.18±4.68)]、竹子较高[(4.57±1.09) m对(4.98±0.66) m]以及枯死竹过多[(2.52±0.86)对(3.39±1.33)]的区域;喜欢活动于离水源[(1.59±0.67)对(2.19±0.87)]和隐蔽场所较近[(5.37±2.14) m对(8.35±7.76)m],以及距离乔木较远[(3.09±0.69) m对(2.70±0.42) m]和郁闭度较低[(1.85±0.57)对(2.10±0.47)]的区域(<em>P</em> < 0.05),新笋密度大小是该栖息地在整个野化培训期间是否被利用的最重要因素。该野化培训大熊猫幼仔保持着与带仔母兽相近的生境选择特征,对竹子环境的选择也与卧龙野生大熊猫相似,野化培训对该大熊猫幼仔产生了积极的作用。野化培训大熊猫幼仔形成的家域和核域面积分别为9.21 hm² 和1.93 hm²,占野化培训圈面积的51.95%和10.89%,其中家域面积仅有卧龙野生大熊猫的1.4%-2.4%,所以在以后的野化培训过程中需要采取增加野化培训圈中环境丰富度等方式,促进野化培训大熊猫形成较大的家域面积。;The giant panda (<em>Ailuropoda melanoleuca</em>)is a rare endangered species listed on the IUCN(International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources)Red List of Threatened Species and in the Appendices of CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora). The giant panda has encountered risks of gene loss and local extinction of metapopulations due to habitat loss as a result of both biogeological and anthropologenic disturbance. One way to save endangered species is to reintroduce captive animals to sparsely populated regions of their historical distribution area. However, in order for reintroduction to succeed, captive animals must be able to select habitat that ensures their survival in the wild, a crucial skill that can be honed during pre-release training. We conducted research involving pre-release training of a giant panda in an enclosure in an area of natural habitat at the China Conservation and Research Center for the Giant Panda (CCRCGP) in Wolong Nature Reserve. We found that the panda selected areas with a high density of <em>Fargesia robusta </em>bamboo shoots (means±standard deviation of habitat plots and control plots: 2.68±1.14 vs. 1.58±0.66), but avoided areas with a high density of adult bamboo (9.91±2.51 vs. 12.18±4.68) dead bamboo (2.52±0.86 vs. 3.39±1.33) and areas with higher bamboo culms ((4.57±1.09) m vs. (4.98±0.66) m). The panda was found in areas near water ((1.59±0.67) m vs. (2.19±0.87) m) and shelter ((5.37±2.14) m vs. (8.35±7.76) m) more often than other areas, but avoided areas close to trees ((3.09±0.69) m vs. (2.70±0.42) m) and areas with higher canopy cover (1.85±0.57 vs. 2.10±0.47) (<em>P</em> < 0.05). Logistic regression showed that the density of new bamboo shoots was the main factor predicting habitat use by the pre-released giant panda. The pre-released giant panda had similar habitat selection patterns as its mother, suggesting that it may be able to learn skills from its mother, an important factor that can impact the success of the reintroduction. The pre-released giant panda also displayed similar habitat selection patterns as wild giant pandas in Wolong Nature Reserve, suggesting that it may be prepared for foraging in the wild. The fact that the pre-released giant panda selected areas close to the shelter suggests it might have learned predator avoidance skills from pre-release training, which could have a positive effect on its survival in the wild. Home range and home range core areas were 9.21 hm² and 1.93 hm², about 51.95% and 10.89% of the pre-release training enclosure respectively, while the home range was only 1.4%-2.4% of home ranges of wild giant pandas in Wolong Nature Reserve. It is essential to enrich the bamboo species richness of the pre-release training enclosure (such as by including <em>Bashania faberi </em>in the enclosure) in the future.

Does early antipredator training increase the suitability of captive red-legged partridges (Alectoris rufa) for releasing?

This study aimed to evaluate the postrelease survival and spatial distribution of farm-bred red-legged partridges (Alectoris rufa) that were subject to a prerelease training program based on exemplary behavior and alarm calls given by adults that acted as experienced demonstrators in simulated predator encounters (wooden raptor models and humans). Two groups of partridges were released in this study: trained (intensively reared birds accompanied by tutors) and control (chicks reared without tutors). Releases were conducted in the fall and winter-spring during 2 consecutive years using a total of 44 trained and 40 control radio-tagged partridges. Trained partridges showed statistically higher mean values of survival (72.7 d), home range (13.04 ha), and dispersion (549.58 m) compared with nontrained partridges, with most nontrained birds failing to survive more than 2 wk after release. Trained adult partridges showed the best survival results (105.2 d). Taking all birds into account, causes of death were attributed to terrestrial predators (45%), raptors (18.7%), hunting (11.3%), and unknown causes (25%). Although values of variables reported here were lower than those reported in wild counterparts, survival time and spatial behavior of trained birds were close to that of previous data of parent-reared partridges and higher than that of farm-bred birds. This study aimed to confirm the potential of prerelease training techniques in present-day rearing systems. Farm-bred game birds, which normally suffer from high predation rates after release, could highly benefit from the use of cost-effective training techniques based on learning from experienced adults.

Pre-Release Hunting Training and Post-Release Monitoring are Key Components in the Rehabilitation of Orphaned Large Felids

The rehabilitation of orphaned animals is commonly practiced but rarely scientifically documented. The behavioural development before release (e.g. regarding hunting skills) is particularly important for ensuring animals are self-sustaining after release. We document the rehabilitation and release of three confiscated cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) cubs and one leopard (Panthera pardus) cub, which were taken from the wild in Botswana. The animals were raised with minimal human contact and the development of their hunting skills was observed and assisted by limited pre-release training. After release, all animals were monitored and data showed they successfully hunted, with behavioural patterns similar to wild conspecifics. All established stable home ranges at the release site. Home ranges of the cheetahs ranged from 44 to 121 km2, travelling primarily during the early morning and evening, ranging from 4.5 to 9.4 km/day. While the leopard survived and probably reproduced within a stable home range (449 km2), all three cheetahs were shot within 7 months of release. Therefore, although orphaned large felids can successfully hunt after release using appropriate rehabilitation techniques, they face the same human—carnivore conflicts of their wild counterparts. Our study demonstrates the indispensable but commonly neglected need for post-release monitoring in wildlife rehabilitation.

Pre–release training of juvenile little owls Athene noctua to avoid predation

Anti–predator training of juvenile little owls was tested in a sample of recovered owls raised in captivity in Brinzal Owl Rescue Center (Madrid, Spain). Mortality caused by predators has been described previously in released individuals. Nine little owls were conditioned during their development to a naturalized goshawk and a large live rat, whose presence was paired to the owl’s alarm call. All nine owls and seven non–trained individuals were then released during the late summer and autumn and radio–tracked for six weeks to test their survival. In total 71.4% of the trained owls survived while only the 33.3% of the untrained group were alive at the end of week six. The only cause of death that was detected was predation. Antipredator training, therefore, seems to be beneficial in maximizing survival after the release of juvenile little owls.

Wild versus head-started hawksbill turtles Eretmochelys imbricata: post-release behavior and feeding adaptions

To ensure the success of reintroduction programs, it is important to monitor the post- release behavior and survival of released animals. In this study, the post-release movement and behavior of 5 wild and 5 head-started hawksbill turtles Eretmochelys imbricata were monitored using ultrasonic telemetry. Their dispersal directions and recaptures may indicate that wild turtles perform homing migrations. However, the head-started turtles showed non-uniform patterns in dispersal movements. Four head-started turtles moved out of the monitoring area in various directions, whereas one turtle stayed within the monitoring area for approx. 10 mo. These results might indicate that head-started turtles wander aimlessly in their new surroundings. Signal reception patterns indi- cated that wild turtles were active in the daytime and rested under the coral at night. Although the head-started turtles also rest at night, their resting places did not seem to be sheltered from haz- ardous sea conditions or adequate for efficient resting. Therefore, head-started hawksbill turtles appear to need pre-release training such as exposure to structures or ledges in the rearing tank so they can utilize similar structures in the wild for shelter during rest periods and maximize their dive duration by employing these as a roof to counteract the positive buoyant effect of inhaled air. Prey analysis of a head-started turtle captured incidentally demonstrates that these turtles can make feed- ing adaptations to adjust to the natural environment. These findings provide constructive information for the implementation and improvement of head-start programs.

Daily activity budget of captive and released Scarlet macawAra macaoat Playa San Josecito Release Site, Costa Rica

Baseline data for 17 behaviours grouped into six categories were collected for ten captive and nine soft-released Scarlet macaws Ara macao, in order to analyse daily activity budgets. Most of the birds were captive-bred and hand-reared. The captive birds spent less time on Socializing and Feeding behaviours than the released birds but spent more time on Maintenance behaviour and No Activity. The observation protocol developed here is a useful tool for monitoring the birds during pre-release training and, once released, to determine quantitatively whether a bird was properly prepared for survival in the wild.

SURVIVAL OF CAPTIVE-REARED PUERTO RICAN PARROTS RELEASED IN THE CARIBBEAN NATIONAL FOREST

We report first-year survival for 34 captive-reared Puerto Rican Parrots (Amazona vittata) released in the Caribbean National Forest, Puerto Rico between 2000 and 2002. The purpose of the releases were to increase population size and the potential number of breeding individuals of the sole extant wild population, and to refine release protocols for eventual reintroduction of a second wild population elsewhere on the island. After extensive prerelease training, we released 10 parrots in 2000, 16 parrots in 2001, and eight parrots in 2002 ranging in age from 1–4 years old. All birds were equipped with radio-transmitters to monitor survival. The overall first-year survival estimate for the 34 parrots was 41% (CI = 22%–61%). Only one parrot died within the first week postrelease, with most (94%) surviving for at least eight weeks after release. Most (54%) documented mortalities were due to raptor predation, which claimed 21% of all released parrots. A captive-reared bird (male, age one), released in 2001, paired with a wild female and fledged two young in 2004. We also calculated survival based on 0% and 50% of observed predation losses and found hypothetical survival rates of 72% and 54%, respectively. Rigorous prerelease training and acclimation was believed to have improved initial postrelease parrot survival, and releasing mixed age-class groups suggests the potential for shortening the time to recruitment. Supervivencia de Individuos de Amazona vittata Criados en Cautiverio y Liberados en el Bosque Nacional del Caribe Resumen. Determinamos la supervivencia de 34 individuos de cotorras Amazona vittata criados en cautiverio y liberados en el Bosque Nacional del Caribe, Puerto Rico entre el 2000 y el 2002. El propósito de las liberaciones era aumentar el tamaño de la población y el número potencial de individuos reproductores en la única población silvestre remanente, y refinar los protocolos de liberación para eventualmente establecer una segunda población silvestre en la isla. Después de un adiestramiento extensivo, liberamos 10 cotorras en el 2000, 16 cotorras en el 2001, y ocho cotorras en el 2002 fluctuando en edades entre uno y cuatro años. Cada individuo se liberó con un radio transmisor para determinar su supervivencia. La tasa general de supervivencia para 34 cotorras después de un año fue de 41% (IC = 22–61%). Sólo una cotorra murió durante la primera semana post-liberación, con la mayoría (94%) sobreviviendo por lo menos ocho semanas después de liberadas. La mayoría (54%) de la mortandad se debió a la depredación por aves rapaces, la que reclamó 21% de todas las cotorras liberadas. Una cotorra criada en cautiverio (macho, un año de edad), y liberada en el 2001, se apareó con una hembra silvestre y produjeron dos volantones en el 2004. Reduciendo la mortandad por aves rapaces informada en este estudio en un 100%, o en un 50%, resultó en tasas hipotéticas de supervivencia del 72% y 54%, respectivamente. Creemos que el adiestramiento y la aclimatación rigurosa pre-liberación mejoraron la supervivencia inicial post-liberación, y que la liberación de grupos de cotorras de edades mixtas sugiere el potencial de acortar el tiempo de reclutamiento.

The Emergence of Conservation Behavior

The Emergence of Conservation Behavior

Case study of a chimpanzee recovered from poachers and temporarily released with wild conspecifics

This case study describes the behavior ofBahati (BA), a captive, wild-born, 4 – 6 yr old, female chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii), before and after her temporary release into Kibale National Park, Uganda. Post-release interactions with habituated, wild chimpanzees were recorded.BA was not attacked by the wild chimpanzees at the time of introduction and observations during her period of travel with conspecifics indicate that she received significantly more affiliative contact than aggressive.BA foraged further from humans, glanced less at observers and climbed ever higher in the canopy as the project proceeded.BA associated closely with two wild chimpanzees: a fully adult male and a young juvenile female. In the latter stages of the project, she spent progressively less time in proximity to conspecifics. After six weeks,BA no longer followed wild chimpanzees and repeatedly returned to human settlements. The attempt was terminated after two months andBA returned to captivity. On the basis of this case study, we suggest possible adjustments to re-introduction criteria, and discuss the outcomes of pre-release training, public involvement, and health screening under field conditions.

Pre-release training of female public offenders.

This study assessed the effect of pre-release training on the personalities of 16 incarcerated female inmates of Mississippi State Penitentiary. Pre- and post-training 16 PFs were administered to these inmates and controls. Analysis of covariance gave significant differences between groups on Factors B (Less Intelligent-More Intelligent), E (Humble-Assertive), F (Sober-Happy-Go-Lucky), G (Expedient-Conscientious), O (Placid-Apprehensive), Q3 (Undisciplined-Controlled), and Q4 (Relaxed-Tense). Also, a significant difference was noted for Introversion-Extroversion. Cross-validation is needed.

Behavior modification with chronic mental patients

The chronic mental patient is a product of the learning expriences he has in institutionalized settings. He has been rewarded repeatedly for being compliant, passive, and uninterested in changing his behavior. To rehabilitate the chronic patient, contingencies of reinforcement will have to be reversed from apathy and docility to improving one's appearance, working at a job, and social interaction. Table 1. behavioral procedures for rehabilitating chronic mental patients 1. 1. Precisely define the behavioral goals for each patient (therapeutic goals). 2. 2. Measure the frequency of the desired behavior as it is exhibited by the patient (therapeutic progress). 3. 3. Attach clear positive and negative consequences to adaptive and maladaptive behavior, respectively (contingencies of reinforcement, therapeutic community's ‘culture’). 4. 4. Use instructions and prompts to elicit the desired behaviors. 5. 5. Reinforce patients for making small, discrete steps in the desired directions (shaping behavior). 6. 6. Structure the hospital setting to approximate the real world outside (stimulus generalization). 7. 7. Provide opportunities for patients to learn and practice vocational and housekeeping skills which have marketable value in the community or instrumental role value within the family. 8. 8. Prepare patients and significant others to live in mutually supportive ways in the community (pre-release training, aftercare). Teach significant others to use behavioral principles to maintain gains. 9. 9. Coordinate community resources to reinforce and back-up the patient's coping efforts in adjusting to the community. Table 1 summarizes the procedures for modifying chronicity in long-term mental patients. In addition to attaching clear consequences to the patient's behavior and monitoring the behavior specifically it is necessary to structure the hospital setting in such a way as to make it more like the real world outside. If the patient is to learn behaviors which will enable him to adjust to the community, he must have the opportunity to practice these behaviors in an environment which approximates that of the community. Thus the hospital setting must be radically restructured. Attention must also be paid to the problems inherent in the patients' life after discharge. Mutually supporting groups of patients and help givers in the community must be solidified to enable the patients' learning and adjustment to proceed in the community as it did in the hospital. The responsibility of the mental health professional does not end at the time of discharge but must extend into the community and the support of community resources. An integration of behavioral technology and community psychiatry offers much promise in the rehabilitation of chronic mental patients.