Preliminary Spatial Analysis Research Articles

Why is Archaeology Inalienable in Learning about the Traces of the Great War in Kozienice Forest and Restoring the Memory of the Forgotten History of a Century Ago?

The article presents the preliminary results of historical and archaeological research on the relics of the Great War in the Kozienice Forest. The aim of the article is to demonstrate the need to use archaeological methods in restoring the memory of the events of 1914 and 1915. The use of these methods to study the battlefield and its hinterland provides new information and allows for the analysis of battlefield elements. Preliminary spatial analyses of the war cemetery in Wysokie Koło showed that its boundaries had changed, and the graves had been destroyed during the renovation in the years 2004-2006.

A Framework for Assessing Nature-Based Urban Stormwater Management Solutions: A Preliminary Spatial Analysis Approach Applied to Southeast Serbia

The development of the stormwater management strategies, e.g., low-impact development (LID), water-sensitive urban design (WSUD), and sustainable drainage solutions (SUDS), was initiated in the mid-1980s as a set of engineering approaches and technologies to reduce the harmful effects of stormwater. Over time, all of them evolved in the holistic, multidisciplinary approaches and, today, they are increasingly viewed and implemented under the umbrella term “Nature-based Solutions” (NbS). The technical elements and measures of these NbS represent various technical solutions, implemented i.a., according to the suitability of the site to achieve their maximum efficiency. Currently, there are no standards or procedures for the application of NbS technologies in Serbia. To overpass this and encourage implementation, we carried out preliminary assessment of NbS elements suitability for application in eight urban settlements in the Region of Southern and Eastern Serbia. The assessment is based on publicly available data and performed according to the existing recommendations in the field of spatial planning and rainwater management for WSUD. The analyses were conducted by GIS tools that involved spatial analyses of various terrain characteristics and provided an insight into the criteria, i.e., constraints that are key to the placement of various technical elements, including bioretention, rain garden, and permeable pavement. Research findings point out that creation of the thematic maps with area suitability ratings for individual NbS stormwater elements might represent a good starting point for further investigation, planning, and design. The proposed framework for preliminary assessment is potentially useful for the countries and regions without regulations in the field of NbS for stormwater management.

Application of Flow Coefficients to Support High Economical Plant Cultivation (Case Study: Kwanyar Bangkalan, Indonesia)

The initial study that we carried out regarding the Kwanyar sub-district area, Bangkalan, East Java, shows the need to optimize land productivity and analyze the potential for farming to build the welfare of the people of the Kwanyar subdistrict. Preliminary spatial data analysis related to the topography as a result of Digital Elevation Model (DEM) data processing shows that: the Kwanyar sub-district is dominated by flat slopes (0-8°) compared to the northern region of the Kwanyar sub-district, while runoff water analysis shows a low flow coefficient (0- 0.25) which means that most of the Kwanyar area has low absorption capacity and a high potential for stagnant water. In addition, the Kwanyar region has a Regosol soil type. Regosol soil has a coarse texture and low organic matter, which makes it unable to properly hold water and minerals for plants, so it tends to be infertile. The initial study then became the basis for this research.

Estimating the change in the rational runoff coefficient through history in Jefferson County, Texas

Jefferson County in Texas has experienced devastating storms in recent years resulting in billions of dollars in damages. The county has gone through temporal milestones in terms of population growth and industrial development. Many studies have shown that urban development increases the risk of flooding by decreasing the soil infiltration capacity. The current study focuses on estimating the extent to which the urban development in the county has led to increased imperviousness using a combination of historical and current spatial data. Rational runoff coefficients of the County were estimated and compared at three different times over a span of 120 years. A land survey map for 1898, an aerial imagery map for 1966 and a land parcel map for 2019 were obtained from various sources. The three maps available, each in different format, were analyzed to determine the land use and land cover type for the respective years. The runoff coefficient increased by 21% from 1898 to 1966 and remained the same from 1966 till 2019. The estimates are in correlation with industrial and population growth patterns of the county. These preliminary spatial analyses are useful in estimating the contributions of recent major flooding from overall development, or if they may be more impacted from other factors such as changes in weather patterns.

A Port by Any Other Name: A Preliminary Spatial Analysis of Ancient Infrastructural Landscapes and Settlement Organization at Macurany, Brazil

AbstractComplex human–environmental processes form identifiable, lasting features on the landscape that can illuminate past human behavior and human–environment interactions. We examine the anthropogenic landscape of the ancient port of Macurany, located along the middle Amazon River in Parintins, Brazil, and identify four classes of anthropogenic landscape features at the site: wharfs, middens, terra preta (dark or black earths), and cultural forests. Middens, terra preta, and cultural forests have been found at archaeological sites in regions surrounding Macurany, but wharfs have not previously been reported in Amazonian contexts predating European contact. Taken together, these features are clearly the result of anthropogenesis and represent a range of subsistence, settlement, and infrastructure-building activities pointing to an ancient society that was actively engaged in modifying the surrounding landscape for purposes beyond settlement and subsistence. Evidence for a permanent, extensive, continuously settled society practicing intensive landscape engineering in this region of Amazonia reinforces findings of dense habitation, infrastructure, and early urbanization in Amazonia prior to European contact. This research helps expand our understanding of human–environment interactions, landscape formation processes, and settlement organization in ancient Amazonia.

Spatial Analysis of COVID-19 Vaccination: A Scoping Review.

Spatial analysis of COVID-19 vaccination research is increasing in recent literature due to the availability of COVID-19 vaccination data that usually contain location components. However, to our knowledge, no previous study has provided a comprehensive review of this research area. Therefore, in this scoping review, we examined the breadth of spatial and spatiotemporal vaccination studies to summarize previous findings, highlight research gaps, and provide guidelines for future research. We performed this review according to the five-stage methodological framework developed by Arksey and O’Malley. We screened all articles published in PubMed/MEDLINE, Scopus, and Web of Science databases, as of 21 September 2021, that had employed at least one form of spatial analysis of COVID-19 vaccination. In total, 36 articles met the inclusion criteria and were organized into four main themes: disease surveillance (n = 35); risk analysis (n = 14); health access (n = 16); and community health profiling (n = 2). Our findings suggested that most studies utilized preliminary spatial analysis techniques, such as disease mapping, which might not lead to robust inferences. Moreover, few studies addressed data quality, modifiable areal unit problems, and spatial dependence, highlighting the need for more sophisticated spatial and spatiotemporal analysis techniques.

The Social Logic of the Temple Space: A Preliminary Spatial Analysis of Historical Buddhist Temples in Chiang Saen, Northern Thailand

The Social Logic of the Temple Space: A Preliminary Spatial Analysis of Historical Buddhist Temples in Chiang Saen, Northern Thailand

Robust Satellite Techniques for mapping thermal anomalies possibly related to seismic activity of March 2021, Thessaly Earthquakes.

In recent years, there is a growing interest concerning the development of a multi-parametric system for earthquakes’ short term forecast identifying those parameters whose anomalous variations can be associated to the complex process of such events. In this context, the Robust Satellite Technique (RST) has been adopted herein with the aim to detect and map thermal anomalies probably related with the strong earthquake of M6.3 occurred near the city of Larissa, Thessaly on March 3rd 2021 10:16:07 UTC. For this purpose, 10 years (2012-2021) of daily Night-time Land Surface Temperature (LST) remotely sensed data from Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS), were analyzed. Pixels characterized by statistically significant LST variations on a daily scale were interpreted as an indicator of variations in seismic activity. Quite intense (Signal/Noise ratio > 2.5) and rare, spatially extensive and time persistent, TIR signal transients were identified, appearing twenty five days before the Thessaly main shock (pre-seismic anomalies: February 6th, February 11th March 1st), the day of the main earthquake (co-seismic anomaly) and after the main shock (post-seismic anomalies: March 4th, 10th and 17th). The final dataset of thermal anomalies was combined with geological and structural data of the area of interest, such as active faults, composite seismogenic sources, earthquake epicenter and topography in order to perform preliminary spatial analysis.

A Preliminary Spatial Analysis of the Association of Asthma and Traffic-Related Air Pollution in the Metropolitan Area of Calgary, Canada

We performed a preliminary spatial analysis to assess the association of asthma emergency visits (AEV) with ambient air pollutants (NO2, PM2.5, PM10, Black Carbon, and VOCs) over Calgary, Canada. Descriptive analyses identify spatial patterns across the city. The spatial patterns of AEV and air pollutants were analyzed by descriptive and spatial statistics (Moran’s I and Getis G). The association between AEV, air pollutants, and socioeconomic status was assessed by correlation and regression. A spatial gradient was identified, characterized by increasing AEV incidence from west to east; this pattern has become increasingly pronounced over time. The association of asthma and air pollution is consistent with the location of industrial areas and major traffic corridors. AEV exhibited more significant associations with BTEX and PM10, particularly during the summer. Over time, AEV decreased overall, though with varying temporal patterns throughout Calgary. AEV exhibited significant and seasonal associations with ambient air pollutants. Socioeconomic status is a confounding factor in AEV in Calgary, and the AEV disparities across the city are becoming more pronounced over time. Within the current pandemic, this spatial analysis is relevant and timely, bearing potential to identify hotspots linked to ambient air pollution and populations at greater risk.

The Zagreb (Croatia) M5.5 Earthquake on 22 March 2020

On 22 March 2020, Zagreb was struck by an M5.5 earthquake that had been expected for more than 100 years and revealed all the failures in the construction of residential buildings in the Croatian capital, especially those built in the first half of the 20th century. Because of that, extensive seismological, geological, geodetic and structural engineering surveys were conducted immediately after the main shock. This study provides descriptions of damage, specifying the building performances and their correlation with the local soil characteristics, i.e., seismic motion amplification. Co-seismic vertical ground displacement was estimated, and the most affected area is identified according to Sentinel-1 interferometric wide-swath data. Finally, preliminary 3D structural modeling of the earthquake sequence was performed, and two major faults were modeled using inverse distance weight (IDW) interpolation of the grouped hypocenters. The first-order assessment of seismic amplification (due to site conditions) in the Zagreb area for the M5.5 earthquake shows that ground motions of approximately 0.16–0.19 g were amplified at least twice. The observed co-seismic deformation (based on Sentinel-1A IW SLC images) implies an approximately 3 cm uplift of the epicentral area that covers approximately 20 km2. Based on the preliminary spatial and temporal analyses of the Zagreb 2020 earthquake sequence, the main shock and the first aftershocks evidently occurred in the subsurface of the Medvednica Mountains along a deep-seated southeast-dipping thrust fault, recognized as the primary (master) fault. The co-seismic rupture propagated along the thrust towards northwest during the first half-hour of the earthquake sequence, which can be clearly seen from the time-lapse visualization. The preliminary results strongly support one of the debated models of the active tectonic setting of the Medvednica Mountains and will contribute to a better assessment of the seismic hazard for the wider Zagreb area.

Environmental aspects of ancient city planning: a pilot study on Ancient Thouria in the Peloponnese, Greece

ABSTRACT In this paper environmental, topographic and geological data of the Classical till Roman Times thriving city of Ancient Thouria situated in Messenia, SW Peloponnese, Greece are presented in context to their archaeological interpretation of the study area’s landscape and usage. Using environmental and geographic factors in collaboration with soil characterization, a preliminary spatial analysis was conducted, aiming at the archaeological interpretation of parameters such as water availability, weather conditions, topography, settlement accessibility and land fertility, taking under account analytical data of soil samples retrieved from a section of an ongoing excavation. The study was conducted using a digital elevation model of the area that enabled the examination of the criteria of watershed, slope, aspect and visibility and assisted X-ray Fluorescence analysis of soil samples from the Asklepieion excavated area thus highlighting the contribution of spatial and in situ analysis to archaeology.

Cuando la cleptocracia no alcanza: los delitos contra las empresas

¿Cuántos delitos contra las empresas se cometen y cuál es el daño económico que producen? Con este estudio se responde esta pregunta, y se agrega un análisis inicial estadístico de diversas características elementales de este problema de seguridad pública. Con base en las encuestas de victimización contra las empresas de 2011 y 2013 en México realizado por el Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía (Inegi), se encontró, principalmente, que las pérdidas económicas directas y los gastos destinados en medidas de protección contra el delito son multimillonarias. Otro problema claramente identificable es la alta victimización empresarial por actos de corrupción, en donde los victimarios son funcionarios de gobierno.

Spatial variation of the b-value observed for the periods preceding and following the 24 August 2016, Amatrice earthquake (ML 6.0) (Central Italy)

<p class="Standard">This paper deals with a preliminary spatial and temporal analysis of the b-value variability, observed in the ar-ea where the August 2016 Amatrice earthquake (M_L 6.0) occurred. With comparison of the pre-and post-periods of the mainshock, an investigation of anomalous zone of b-values was performed aiming to find possi-ble links with barriers and/or asperities in the crustal volume where seismic sequence was developed. Prelimi-nary results show an area with high b-value (b=1.6) where the mainshock originated. Conversely, two low b-value (b=0.8) volumes are located at the border of the seismogenic structure. The location of these two areas is consistent with a preliminary fault slip inversion, suggesting the presence of two highly stressed patches of co-seismic deformation located NW and SE of the mainshock, with a high potentiality to rupture causing a possible moderate or larger event: the first one in the North (Norcia), the second one in South, next to the area of Amatrice and Campotosto.</p>

A preliminary spatial analysis of diagnosed stroke disease in Osun state, Nigeria.

IntroductionThere have been a number of clinical studies on diagnosed Stroke disease. However, there have been few studies on the geographical disparities for stroke. This study investigates the spatial pattern of stroke disease reflecting socio-demographic characteristics in the State.MethodsStroke patients' admissions for 22 years (from 1990 to 2012) were examined. Their socio-demographic characteristics were extracted from their health records and analyzed. The location of the stroke patients were categorized by Local Governments Areas (LGAs). Spatial maps were generated and produced in a Geographical Information System (GIS) environment. It involves the analysis of the distribution of stroke cases in relation to their underlying population to determine the areas of high and low density of diagnosed cases across the state.ResultsThe result highlighted the spatial distribution of diagnosed stroke cases and also highlighted the areas of concern regarding their spatial distribution within the state. Social inequalities in stroke were persistent as incidence rates in urban areas (North) were around 3 times higher than in the rural areas (South). However, this could be due to better healthcare access in the urban areas than in the rural areas as there were disparities in the distribution of healthcare facilities involved in administering care to stroke patients in Osun State.ConclusionThe outcome of this study appears to indicate that spatial inequalities in the access to Stroke healthcare is a concern that needs to be addressed in order to manage the disease adequately.

Preliminary Evaluation of Trace Hydrocarbon Speciation and Abundance as an Exploration Tool for Footwall-Style Sulfide Ores Associated with the Sudbury Igneous Complex, Ontario, Canada

Deposits of Cu-Ni-platinum group elements (PGE)–rich sulfides occur along the North Range footwall of the Sudbury Igneous Complex, Ontario, Canada. The deposits have been modified chemically, mineralogically, and texturally by multiple syn- to postmagmatic hydrothermal events and are hosted mainly within Sudbury breccia, a contact metamorphosed and hydrothermally altered impact breccia. The composition of C1 to C6 unsaturated and saturated hydrocarbons in bulk fluid inclusion volatiles in the matrix of the Sudbury breccia was investigated using in-line rock-crushing gas chromatography (GC) in order to compare the hydrocarbon composition of this rock type in breccia zones containing economic footwall sulfide deposits at the Morrison deposit (Levack mine, North Range, Sudbury, Ontario) with barren breccia zones. Trace hydrocarbons, possibly abiogenic in origin, occur throughout the Sudbury Igneous Complex footwall and country rocks investigated. However, there are differences in the composition and abundance of bulk hydrocarbons released from mineralized and barren Sudbury breccia when fluid inclusions are opened. Volatiles released from samples of Sudbury breccia from sulfide-mineralized and sulfide-barren environments showed the following: (1) higher average abundances of light saturated hydrocarbons (C1–C4) and an approximately 2× higher total abundance of hydrocarbons (mol/g of rock basis) associated with samples from the mineralized study area, and (2) comparable average unsaturated hydrocarbon abundances in both settings, but a larger range in unsaturated hydrocarbon abundances in the mineralized study area. Differences in bulk hydrocarbon abundance and composition reflect differences in the abundance and hydrocarbon content of fluid inclusions trapped in the barren and mineralized Sudbury breccia zones. In addition, the compositional modification of circulating fluids by processes and conditions unique to the mineralized Sudbury breccia environment may have occurred prior to inclusion entrapment (e.g., modification by mineral catalysts, differences in temperature and oxygen fugacity). Preliminary spatial analysis of the hydrocarbon distribution within and surrounding the Morrison deposit shows that the total hydrocarbon abundance in the Sudbury breccia does not change with orebody proximity within a single host breccia zone. However, volatiles trapped in the Sudbury breccia matrix near the top of the footwall deposit, where it is physically connected to contact-style (Ni-Cu-PGE) ores, have elevated unsaturated hydrocarbon abundances (e.g., propene) compared to other parts of the same breccia zone distal to this zone of physical connection. Samples of the PGE-enriched Sudbury breccia and mineralized veins containing alteration assemblages characteristic of the footwall ore styles have higher unsaturated hydrocarbon abundances and unsaturated/saturated ratios compared to Sudbury breccia and vein samples that are PGE poor. Localized enrichments in unsaturated hydrocarbons in Sudbury breccia zones may be the result of specific ore minerals and metal complexes (involving the PGE and group VIII metals) that acted as catalytic agents, modifying the composition of initially light saturated hydrocarbon species prior to entrapment in fluid inclusions. To apply the analysis of hydrocarbon compositions in trapped fluid inclusions to discriminating mineralized from barren zones of Sudbury breccia, samples from targeted areas were compared to samples of barren Sudbury breccia (“background”). Although a large data set is presented here to establish these compositional fields, analysis of smaller sample subsets from each environment yields a statistically significant separation between the two environments. Total hydrocarbon abundance, C3/C1 ratios, and unsaturated/saturated hydrocarbon ratios are useful indicators of sulfide ore proximity and may help delineate regions enriched in PGE.

Towards a Spatial Analysis of Ancient Viticultural Areas: the case study of Amos (Turkey)

Interpretation of ancient texts, such as the Amos epigraphic farming leases, questions both locations and spatial extents of the viticultural area, as well as soils, landscapes, cultivation techniques and the quality of grapes in the Ancient Greece. These issues may be partially answered undertaking spatial analysis of soils and landscape of the present day through digital morphometric and multispectral satellite data. This paper aims at discussing the possible locations of the ancient deme of Amos and identifying the additional data and methodological developments that will be needed for a further zoning of its componing terroir units. It compares the viticultural and geographical details given in the leases prescriptions with a preliminary spatial analysis of the Amos region (Bozburun peninsula, southwest Turkey) using digital morphometric ASTER GDM data and Landsat satellite data. The viticultural prescriptions in the Amos epigraphic farming leases discriminate between vineyards grown on “plains” and v...

Spatial exploration of Streptococcus pneumoniae clonal clustering in São Paulo, Brazil

OBJECTIVES: To examine the spatial distribution of Streptococcus pneumoniae and its clonal patterns collected between 2002 and 2006 in São Paulo, Brazil. METHODS: As part of an observational study in São Paulo city, Brazil, S. pneumoniae isolates routinely cultured from blood, respiratory specimens, or cerebrospinal and other profound fluids were selected. Additionally, only isolates with either penicillin (PEN) intermediate (I) or resistant (R) status on routine antibiogram were included, in order to obtain a higher probability of clonal isolates. A single I/R S. pneumoniae isolate per patient was included and submitted to genotypic determination by pulsed field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). Minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) were determined for the isolates by Etest® to PEN and other antimicrobials. Each isolate was geocoded in a digital map. The Kernel function and ratio methods between total isolates vs. clones were used in order to explore possible cluster formations. RESULTS: Seventy-eight (78) S. pneumoniae community isolates from two major outpatient centers in São Paulo, Brazil, were selected from the databank according to their penicillin susceptibility profile, i.e. R or I to penicillin assessed by oxacillin disc diffusion. Of these, 69 were submitted to PFGE, 65 to MIC determination, and 48 to spatial analytical procedures. Preliminary spatial analysis method showed two possible cluster formation located in southwest and southeast regions of the city. CONCLUSION: Further analyses are required for precisely determining the existence of S. pneumoniae clusters and their related risk factors. Apparently there is a specific transmission pattern of S. pneumoniae clones within certain regions and populations. GIS and spatial methods can be applied to better understand epidemiological patterns and to identify target areas for public health interventions.

Spatial exploration of Streptococcus pneumoniae clonal clustering in São Paulo, Brazil

ObjectivesTo examine the spatial distribution of Streptococcus pneumoniae and its clonal patterns collected between 2002 and 2006 in São Paulo, Brazil. MethodsAs part of an observational study in São Paulo city, Brazil, S. pneumoniae isolates routinely cultured from blood, respiratory specimens, or cerebrospinal and other profound fluids were selected. Additionally, only isolates with either penicillin (PEN) intermediate (I) or resistant (R) status on routine antibiogram were included, in order to obtain a higher probability of clonal isolates. A single I/R S. pneumoniae isolate per patient was included and submitted to genotypic determination by pulsed field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). Minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) were determined for the isolates by Etest® to PEN and other antimicrobials. Each isolate was geocoded in a digital map. The Kernel function and ratio methods between total isolates vs. clones were used in order to explore possible cluster formations. ResultsSeventy-eight (78) S. pneumoniae community isolates from two major outpatient centers in São Paulo, Brazil, were selected from the databank according to their penicillin susceptibility profile, i.e. R or I to penicillin assessed by oxacillin disc diffusion. Of these, 69 were submitted to PFGE, 65 to MIC determination, and 48 to spatial analytical procedures. Preliminary spatial analysis method showed two possible cluster formation located in southwest and southeast regions of the city. ConclusionFurther analyses are required for precisely determining the existence of S. pneumoniae clusters and their related risk factors. Apparently there is a specific transmission pattern of S. pneumoniae clones within certain regions and populations. GIS and spatial methods can be applied to better understand epidemiological patterns and to identify target areas for public health interventions.

Oxidized and reduced mineral assemblages in greenstone belt rocks of the St. Ives gold camp, Western Australia: vectors to high-grade ore bodies in Archaean gold deposits?

Hydrothermal sulfide–oxide–gold mineral assemblages in gold deposits in the Archaean St. Ives gold camp in Western Australia indicate extremely variable redox conditions during hydrothermal alteration and gold mineralization in space and time. Reduced alteration assemblages (pyrrhotite–pyrite) occur in deposits in the southwest of the camp (e.g., Argo, Junction deposits) and moderately to strongly oxidized assemblages (magnetite–pyrite, hematite–pyrite) occur in deposits in the Central Corridor in the northeast (e.g., North Orchin, Revenge deposits). Reduced mineral assemblages flank the Central Corridor of oxidized deposits and, locally, cut across it along E–W trending faults. Oxidized mineral assemblages in the Central Corridor are focused on gravity lows which are interpreted to reflect abundant felsic porphyritic intrusions at about 1,000 m below present surface. Hydrothermal magnetite predates and is synchronous with early phases of gold-associated albite–carbonate–pyrite–biotite–chlorite hydrothermal alteration. Later-stage, gold-associated pyrite is in equilibrium with hematite. The spatial distribution and temporal sequence of iron sulfides and oxides with gold indicate the presence of at least two spatially restricted but broadly synchronous hydrothermal fluids with contrasting redox states. Sulfur isotope constraints support the argument that the different mineral assemblages reflect differences in redox conditions. The δ 34S values for pyrite for the St. Ives gold camp range between −8.4‰ and +5.1‰ with the negative values occurring in oxidized magnetite-rich domains and slightly negative or positive values occurring in reduced, pyrrhotitic domains. Preliminary spatial and paragenetic analysis of the distribution of iron sulfides and oxides in the St. Ives camp suggests that gold grades are highest where the redox state of the hydrothermal alteration assemblages switches from relatively reduced pyrrhotite–pyrite to relatively oxidized magnetite–pyrite and hematite–pyrite both in space and time. Gold deposition is inferred to have occurred where fluids of contrasting redox state mixed.

Mapping Melanoma Lymphoscintigraphy Data onto a 3D Anatomically Based Model

This study describes three-dimensional (3D) visualization of two-dimensional (2D) melanoma lymphatic mapping data, to provide a framework for analysis of melanoma spread patterns and a platform for recording new lymphoscintigraphy (LS) data more accurately in 3D. Specifically, the Sydney Melanoma Unit's LS database of over 5000 patients' primary cutaneous melanoma sites and sentinel lymph nodes have been mapped from 2D images onto a 3D anatomically based model. Anatomically accurate model geometries were created using the Visible Human dataset, giving a bicubic finite element skin mesh and discrete sentinel lymph node model. The full dataset of 2D melanoma site coordinates, excluding the head and neck, has been transformed onto this 3D skin mesh via free-form deformation and projection techniques. Sentinel lymph nodes were mapped onto the generic lymph node model for each patient. Preliminary spatial analysis indicates that a patient with a primary melanoma on the torso around the waist (on the standardized 3D model this region is 180 mm above and 130 mm below the umbilicus) with lymphatic drainage to the left axilla or left groin, will have a 17.7% probability of dual drainage to both node fields, with 95% confidence limits between 14.5 and 21.0%.