Prehistoric Hunter-gatherers Research Articles

Lithic Technological Organization in the Changbai Mountains at the Onset of the Last Glacial Maximum: A Case Study of Assemblages from the Lower Layers of the Helong Dadong Site (27-24 Ka)

ABSTRACT Lithic artifacts from the lower layers of the Helong Dadong site (27-24 Ka cal BP) in the Changbai Mountains were examined to elucidate the technological organization of prehistoric hunter-gatherers at the onset of the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM). The results show: (1) there are no LGM remains due to an occupational gap between the upper and lower layers; (2) burins were maintainably designed, and burin detachments may have had multiple purposes; (3) many artifacts show evidence of recycling and/or redesign; (4) artifacts were efficiently used, none were specialized tools for a single task. This study concludes that the lithic technological organization of the Dadong site’s lower layer is associated with highly mobile foragers of the LGM. However, with the development of the LGM, the climate became colder. Foraging patterns had to change, possibly causing the chronological hiatus in habitation.

Reconstructing Neolithic obsidian procurement in Western Georgia through an obsidian characterization study

The Caucasus, situated strategically in terms of natural geography and abundant raw materials, has been attractive to the interest of prehistoric hunter-gatherers throughout ancient times. Recent discoveries at the Neolithic site of Makhvilauri in the Ajara region, affirm this historical focus. The Makhvilauri flaked stone tool assemblage encompasses various lithic resources, of which ∼11 % (n = 59) comprise obsidian, a raw material whose closest sources are 170 km away. Using the XRF method at the Archaeometry Laboratory at the University of Missouri Reactor Research (MURR) to elementally characterise 23 of the obsidian artifacts (∼39 % of the total) we can demonstrate that the Makhvilauri assemblage was made from at least five geochemically distinct sources. This analysis not only sheds light on the mobility patterns of ancient communities but also underscores the extensive contacts established during the Neolithic period (6th millennium BC).

Editorial: Behaviors and adaptations of prehistoric hunter-gatherers in the (Sub)tropical rainforest area—archaeology, chronology and paleoenvironment

Editorial: Behaviors and adaptations of prehistoric hunter-gatherers in the (Sub)tropical rainforest area—archaeology, chronology and paleoenvironment

Looking Up for prehistoric hunter-gatherer archaeological sites in mountain landscapes in Europe

This paper introduces Looking Up, an intradisciplinary project combining archaeology and geological perspectives to contribute to the management of hunter-gatherer archaeological heritage in mountain landscapes, with a case study based in the Cairngorm Mountains, Scotland. Looking Up, which ran from 2021–2023, used a combination of original archaeological research – especially the development of predictive models of the location of areas of high archaeological potential – and new geological models which provided new information on the timing of deglaciation and numerical models of palaeo-glaciers. This was combined with extensive stakeholder and public engagement to develop best practice guidelines on the management of hunter-gatherer archaeological sites in mountain landscapes.

Patterns of Violence in the Pre-Neolithic Nile Valley

Burial assemblages inform us about the biology of past societies, social relations, and ritual and symbolic behavior. However, they also allow us to examine the circumstances of death and social violence. A high level of intergroup violence among prehistoric hunter-gatherers is well-documented in some times and places but is extremely rare in others. Here we present an analysis of the perimortem injury to skeleton PD8 at the site of Sphinx in Central Sudan. This burial, attributed to the Early Khartoum (Khartoum Mesolithic) culture, radiocarbon dated between 8637 and 8463 cal BP, bears evidence of a perimortem sharp force trauma caused by penetration of an unshaped, fractured non-human bone between the right scapula and the rib cage. Among more than 200 anthropologically assessed human burials from the early Holocene Nile Valley reviewed in this paper, PD8 provides the only documented evidence of violence resulting in death. This rare case of death differs from the numerous cases of intergroup conflict documented in terminal Pleistocene burial grounds in Lower Nubia. This suggests different patterns of violence and strategies of conflict resolution in the pre-Neolithic (terminal Pleistocene and early Holocene) Nile Valley. We attribute this difference in the prevalence of interpersonal trauma to climatic and environmental conditions, territorial boundary defense, and post-marital residence practices before and after the Younger Dryas’ arid millennium (~ 12,800–11,600 BP).

Prehistoric Hunter-Gatherers in the Philippines—Subsistence strategies, adaptation, and behaviour in maritime environments

Archaeological research in the Philippines has produced a timeline of currently over 700,000 years of human occupation. However, while an initial presence of early hominins has been securely established through several radiometric dates between 700 ka to 1 ma from Luzon Island, there is currently little evidence for the presence of hominins after those episodes until c. 67 to 50 ka for Luzon or any of the other Philippine islands. At approximately 40 ka, anatomically modern humans had arrived in the Philippines. Early sites with fossil and/or artifactual evidence are Tabon Cave in Palawan and Bubog 1 in Occidental Mindoro, the latter situated in the Wallacean part of the archipelago. This paper presents an overview of the archaeological research on the prehistory of the Philippines from the Pleistocene until the Late Holocene and the arrival of the first farmers, presumably from Austronesian language groups approximately 4,000 years ago. Research on this topic has significantly intensified over the past 20 years and is providing a variety of evidence for the successful adaptation of those first islanders to maritime environments, the diversity of technological and subsistence strategies, and increasingly complex interrelationships across Island Southeast Asia.

Stable isotope analyses of amino acids reveal the importance of aquatic resources to Mediterranean coastal hunter-gatherers.

Determining the degree to which humans relied on coastal resources in the past is key for understanding long-term social and economic development, as well as for assessing human health and anthropogenic impacts on the environment. Prehistoric hunter-gatherers are often assumed to have heavily exploited aquatic resources, especially those living in regions of high marine productivity. For the Mediterranean, this view has been challenged, partly by the application of stable isotope analysis of skeletal remains which has shown more varied coastal hunter-gatherer diets than in other regions, perhaps due to its lower productivity. By undertaking a more specific analysis of amino acids from bone collagen of 11 individuals from one of the oldest and best-known Mesolithic cemeteries in the Mediterranean, at El Collado, Valencia, we show that high levels of aquatic protein consumption were achieved. By measuring both carbon and nitrogen in amino acids, we conclude that some of the El Collado humans relied heavily on local lagoonal fish and possibly shellfish, rather than open marine species. By contrast to previous suggestions, this study demonstrates that the north-western coast of the Mediterranean basin could support maritime-oriented economies during the Early Holocene.

The mitochondrial genomes of two Pre-historic Hunter Gatherers in Sri Lanka.

Sri Lanka is an island in the Indian Ocean connected by the sea routes of the Western and Eastern worlds. Although settlements of anatomically modern humans date back to 48,000 years, to date there is no genetic information on pre-historic individuals in Sri Lanka. We report here the first complete mitochondrial sequences for Mesolithic hunter-gatherers from two cave sites. The mitochondrial haplogroups of pre-historic individuals were M18a and M35a. Pre-historic mitochondrial lineage M18a was found at a low prevalence among Sinhalese, Sri Lankan Tamils, and Sri Lankan Indian Tamil in the Sri Lankan population, whereas M35a lineage was observed across all Sri Lankan populations with a comparatively higher frequency among the Sinhalese. Both haplogroups are Indian derived and observed in the South Asian region and rarely outside the region.

Pleistocene hunter-gatherer coastal adaptations in Atlantic Iberia

Coastal prehistoric hunter-gatherers in Atlantic Iberia were particularly important to understanding Paleolithic human innovation and resilience. This study will focus on Middle and Upper Paleolithic adaptations to the Iberian Atlantic border. Elements such as intensity and diversity of marine foods, site location, distance to shore, submerged platform, and bathymetry are discussed for the region between Gibraltar and the Gulf of Biscay.

Land use and risk management in the Diamante Valley, northwestern Patagonia, Argentina

This research discusses land use in three ecological zones from the Diamante Valley: the highlands, the piedmont, and the lowlands—while focusing on mobility and the lithic organization of prehistoric hunter-gatherers. To determine the differences in land use, the fieldwork for this research involved a systematic random sample of surface deposits from 400 one-hectare units within a 100 km2 area in each ecological zone, followed by lithic analysis of the materials recovered. The piedmont contains the highest density of human activity, followed by the highlands, and then the lowlands. In the lowlands, the relative absence of evidence for human activity suggests this was an unfavorable place for people to live. However, geomorphology, site formation processes, and visibility, may also be a plausible cause of the lack of findings. In both the piedmont and the highlands, larger sites close to watercourses and raw materials were occupied repeatedly. Across the region, the most common raw material was basalt, followed by cryptocrystalline, and then obsidian. Chipped stone implements and fragments in the highlands were smaller than in the other areas. In the highlands, the most abundant camps were of medium size, possibly located and organized to support logistical foraging trips to acquire resources in a patchier environment. I examine how patterns of human mobility complement the use of resources across different ecological zones, nothing that the piedmont, which is accessible all year round, was used the most. These findings contribute to our understanding of the diversity of evolutionary trajectories of small-scale groups in marginal environments by the use of a variety of adaptive strategies.

Growing up Gravettian: Bioarchaeological perspectives on adolescence in the European Mid-Upper Paleolithic

Adolescence is a stage of development unique to the human life course, during which key social, physical, and cognitive milestones are reached. Nonetheless, both the experience of adolescence and the role(s) of adolescents in the past have received little scholarly attention. Here we combine a broad interpretative framework for adolescence among prehistoric hunter-gatherers with direct bioarchaeological (burial) data to examine the lives of teenagers in the European Mid-Upper Paleolithic or Gravettian (∼35–25,000 years ago). Comparisons of the burial practices of individuals of different age classes (infant, child, adolescent, adult), as well as between adolescents who died at different ages, reveal some patterns related to adolescence in these communities, including 1) fewer distinctions based on sex among adolescents compared to adults; 2) differences between the sexes in age-at-death within our ‘adolescent’ age class—with females disproportionally dying later—potentially indicating high risks associated with first pregnancy; 3) distinctions in grave goods and diet among adolescents of different ages-at-death which we tentatively interpret as providing an emic perspective on the beginning of adolescence as defined by Pleistocene hunter-gatherers. Nonetheless, our analysis supports long-standing models of a distinct, continent-wide European Mid-Upper Paleolithic funerary tradition, with the burial data expressing social cohesion, rather than social distinctions, between age classes.

Seismic morphologies of submerged late glacial to Early Holocene landscapes at the eastern Dogger Bank, central North Sea Basin – implications for geo-archaeological potential

Abstract The inundated Doggerland in the North Sea Basin has been a coveted research target for many years owing to its key location with respect to geological evolution since the last glaciation and its archaeological potential related to prehistoric hunter–gatherer populations. Still, many uncertainties related to glacial and sea-level forcing on erosion and deposition remain, and the first discovery of submerged settlements is yet to be reported. In this study, we present a range of seismic morphologies and facies characteristic for the late glacial and Holocene succession near a major drainage system at the eastern Dogger Bank. Five of these facies are dominant in the area while two facies can be associated with a terrestrial–fluvial landscape buried 0–22 m below the seafloor. We detect various erosion levels of the terrestrial–fluvial landscape that are greatest towards the south where sediment has been removed, probably owing to combined terrestrial–fluvial and marine erosion. We find that five subareas show geo-archaeological potential in terms of (1) the preservation degree of terrestrial strata based on erosion estimates, (2) the accessibility of terrestrial strata based on burial depths and (3) the palaeolandscape configuration based on the spatial setting in relation to the drainage system and the palaeocoastlines. We further document a geological evolution of the study area, which is comparable with the evolution at the western Dogger Bank. However, we find more evidence for an extended flooding period because of the vicinity to the major drainage system and the Elbe Paleo Valley. We propose that our approach can be used as a workflow for marine investigations that focus on submerged hunter–gatherer heritage.

Against Method

Against Method

Lateglacial–Holocene environments and human occupation in the Upper Lena region of Eastern Siberia derived from sedimentary and zooarchaeological data from Lake Ochaul

In the current study, different geochemical and biological proxies, including pollen, non-pollen palynomorphs, ostracods and molluscs, from an AMS radiocarbon-dated sediment core from Lake Ochaul (54°14′N, 106°28′E; 641 m a.s.l.) are presented and discussed. Ochaul is a fresh-water lake and an archaeological site situated ca. 100 km northwest of Lake Baikal in the upper reaches of the Lena River. The 260-cm-long sedimentary record presented here spans the Lateglacial–Holocene interval, between ca. 13,500 cal yr BP and the present. The reconstructions of the postglacial vegetation and lake system development are discussed along with the regional climate dynamics and the hemispheric-scale environmental changes. During the Allerød interstadial the region around Lake Ochaul was dominated by sparse taiga forests. Cooling during the Younger Dryas led to a more open tundra landscape where trees formed patchy forest stands in climatically favourable environments. This facilitated a rapid spread of forests at the onset of the Early Holocene during which the study region was probably characterized by seasonally dry climate controlled by the interplay of higher insolation, lower global sea levels and remaining ice sheets in the North Atlantic region. After thermal and moisture optimum conditions and a maximum spread of forests during the Middle Holocene, continuous cooling and a trend to more open forests landscapes marked the Late Holocene. These long-term trends were interrupted by several relatively short episodes of change in the vegetation and algal records, which coincide with short-term (centennial-scale) Northern Hemisphere cooling/drying phases. This shows that the regional vegetation reacted sensitively to these climate oscillations. Six AMS radiocarbon dates of bone material of large herbivorous animals from the Ochaul archaeological site located at the northern shore of the lake provide important information about prehistoric hunter-gatherers and indicate that activities at the site took place at ca. 27,780–27,160 cal yr BP (95% probability range) as well as during the Mesolithic (ca. 8850–8450 cal yr BP), Early, Middle and Late Neolithic (between ca. 6840 and 5490 cal yr BP) and the Iron Age (ca. 2120–1930 cal yr BP). Our results demonstrate that despite major environmental transformations following the Last Glacial Maximum, Lake Ochaul and the Malaya Anga River valley remained attractive for large herbivores and for prehistoric hunter-gatherers, even during the Middle Neolithic cultural “hiatus” (ca. 6660–6060 cal yr BP) in Cis-Baikal, as documented by the published archaeological records.

Gazelle Hunting Strategies in the Early Ahmarian: Close-Range Visuospatial Characteristics of Site Locations Indicate Spatially Focused Hunting Strategies on Gazella sp. During the Early Ahmarian

Visual conditions around Palaeolithic sites determine how the landscape was perceived by prehistoric hunter-gatherers. By placing the site in different landscapes, different visual foci were encoded in the locational characteristics of the different places. For the Early Ahmarian sites in the Levant, it can be shown that visual characteristics differ significantly with the combination of large ungulate prey exploited at the respective location. A Higuchi viewshed approach was combined with total viewsheds of the study area to introduce a human scale into the viewshed modelling. While diverse prey locations in the Mediterranean biome provide an overview over the landscape, specialised prey locations in the steppe biomes of the Irano-Turanian and Saharo-Arabian biome have their focus on the immediate vicinity of the sites. This correlates with the placement of sites in the context of highly humid environments which can be best exemplified with the site of Al-Ansab 1 in the escarpments of the Jordanian Rift Valley. Here, the environmental conditions acted as a magnet, focusing gazelles on the migration between different environments.

Radiocarbon data may support a Malthus-Boserup model of hunter-gatherer population expansion

Describing and explaining the population growth trajectories of prehistoric hunter-gatherers is an important research problem. Large radiocarbon data sets provide one empirical starting point for describing these trajectories; however, explaining trajectories of growth must always take place within the context of theory. In this paper, we formalize a ratchet model of long-term, mean population growth among hunter-gatherers and evaluate the plausibility of that model using two extensive radiocarbon data sets from Central Texas and the Texas Coastal Plain. Our analysis suggests that hunter-gatherer populations in these regions displayed waves of population growth separated by periods of population saturation and competition for resources. Our model and results suggest that hunter-gatherer populations in Texas may have experienced multiple demographic transitions to successively higher levels of population saturation (carrying capacity). Our results derive from a general model, a set of methods applicable across archaeological regions, and provide a basis for hypotheses that may explain changes in the socioecology of hunter-gatherers.

The History and Driving Force for Prehistoric Human Expansion Upward to the Hinterland of the Tibetan Plateau Post–Last Glacial Maximum

The timing and motivation of prehistoric human expansion into the hinterland of the Tibetan Plateau (TP) is a widely debated scientific issue. Recent archaeological studies have brought forward predictions of the earliest human occupation of the TP to the late–Middle Pleistocene. However, massive human occupation of the TP did not appear until the termination of the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM). The spatio-temporal distribution of prehistoric hunter-gatherers on the TP varies significantly before the permanent occupation after 3600 BP (before present). Here, we report on environmental-archaeological evidence from the Canxionggashuo (CXGS) site in Yushu Prefecture, which provides information that is key to understanding the dynamics of post-LGM human occupation on the TP. Radiocarbon dating has revealed two occupation periods of the CXGS site at 8600–7100 cal (calibrated years) BP and 2400–2100 cal BP. The charcoal concentration in cultural layers correlates well with paleo–human activities. Hunter-gatherers expanded westwards from the northeastern margin of the TP to the hinterland of the TP during the warming period of the early–middle Holocene (~11,500–6000 BP). However, these groups retreated during the middle–late Holocene (~6000–3600 BP) under a cooling-drying climate. Prehistoric humans finally occupied the hinterland of the TP permanently after 3600 BP, with an enhanced cold-adaptive lifestyle, although the climate was still deteriorating.

Technological persistency following faunal stability during the Pleistocene: A model for reconstructing Paleolithic adaptation strategies based on mosaic evolution

Prehistoric archaeology focuses on innovations, transformations, and turnovers. We focus instead on persistency, suggesting that technological persistency in prehistoric hunter-gatherers was triggered by the stability of prey. The technological persistency-faunal stability nexus was not only crucial to human prosperity but also provided safe ground for technological and behavioral innovations, facilitating further adaptation to changing conditions. This can be viewed in the framework of mosaic evolution. We present six cases of morphological stasis enabling trophic adaptations and five archaeological cases of technological persistency following faunal stability. This model could contribute to a better understanding of technological persistency and its evolutionary role.

Los tobas de Bolivia: resiliencia y adaptación en el Chaco Boreal

Nuestro estudio está centrado en los tobas de Bolivia. Describimos un modelo estacional de uso del ambiente empleado por cazadores-recolectores de las sabanas semiáridas del chaco boreal en el cual grupos demográficamente pequeños pescaban en los ríos y cursos de agua temporarios y plantaban en humedales, desplazándose durante otros períodos del ciclo anual entre campamentos de caza y recolección en los campos y lagunas interiores. Este modelo de apropiación de recursos, si bien adaptado y flexibilizado, mantuvo una probada resiliencia entre cazadores-recolectores históricos. Debido a la relativa escasez de información etnográfica sobre los tobas bolivianos, cuando resulta apropiado utilizamos datos etnográficos equivalentes obtenidos entre sus parientes, los tobas del Oeste de Formosa, Argentina. Presentamos estimados sobre la cantidad de población toba en el siglo XIX y otros elementos que permitirían modelizar: (a) los lugares de campamento y la movilidad estacional, (b) el tamaño de los pequeños grupos familiares, (c) los campamentos, y (d) las relaciones intergrupales. Considerando la poca información disponible en este momento sobre los cazadores-recolectores prehistóricos que habitaban el abanico del Alto Pilcomayo, las descripciones etnográficas que presentamos aquí podrían contribuir al análisis de los modos de vida en la prehistoria reciente de la región.

Why are population growth rate estimates of past and present hunter-gatherers so different?

Hunter–gatherer population growth rate estimates extracted from archaeological proxies and ethnographic data show remarkable differences, as archaeological estimates are orders of magnitude smaller than ethnographic and historical estimates. This could imply that prehistoric hunter–gatherers were demographically different from recent hunter–gatherers. However, we show that the resolution of archaeological human population proxies is not sufficiently high to detect actual population dynamics and growth rates that can be observed in the historical and ethnographic data. We argue that archaeological and ethnographic population growth rates measure different things; therefore, they are not directly comparable. While ethnographic growth rate estimates of hunter–gatherer populations are directly linked to underlying demographic parameters, archaeological estimates track changes in the long-term mean population size, which reflects changes in the environmental productivity that provide the ultimate constraint for forager population growth. We further argue that because of this constraining effect, hunter–gatherer populations cannot exhibit long-term growth independently of increasing environmental productivity.This article is part of the theme issue ‘Cross-disciplinary approaches to prehistoric demography’.