Preferred Edible Items Research Articles

Assessing Preference in a Paired-Stimulus Arrangement with Captive Vultures (Aegypius Monachus)

ABSTRACT Vultures play an important role in our ecosystem by filtering out bacteria and viruses harmful to humans (e.g., rabies, botulism). However, many vultures remain in human care due to skill deficits and behavioral excesses, which can be treated using behavior-management practices that rely on effective (often edible) reinforcers. The current study replicated the forced-choice or paired-stimulus preference assessment with five birds of prey. Across all vultures, participants displayed a preference for animal (e.g., meat) over nonanimal stimuli (e.g., fruit), and mice meat was the most preferred edible for 4 of the 5 vultures. The application of this methodology to birds of prey might allow rehabilitators, conservationists, and other caretakers to make greater gains in training vultures to both acquire new skills and decrease problem behavior using highly preferred edible items.

Comparison of Function-Based, Nonfunction-Based, and Combined Treatments for Escape-Maintained Aggression in a Child With Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: A Case Study

In applied behavior analysis, the use of function-based treatments to reduce problem behavior is well-supported. However, in some cases, function-based treatments alone may not be as effective as nonfunction-based treatments or function-based treatments with additional, nonfunction-based components. In this case study, we compared the delivery of preferred edible items (a nonfunction-based treatment), a break from a task (a function-based treatment), and an enhanced break, which consisted of a break plus access to a preferred tangible item (combination of a nonfunction-based and function-based treatment), to treat escape-maintained aggression exhibited by a young child with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Across all three treatments, reinforcement (i.e., edible, break, or enhanced break) was delivered contingent upon compliance with instructions and problem behavior resulted in escape. The nonfunction-based treatment and the combination treatment reduced aggression to zero levels; the function-based treatment did not. Finally, we allowed the participant to choose which of the three treatments he preferred to experience; he selected the combination treatment most often.

The combined effects of noncontingent reinforcement and punishment on the reduction of rumination.

The current study extends the literature on the assessment and treatment of rumination through the evaluation of a combined reinforcement- and punishment-based intervention. The study included a single participant with a history of rumination maintained by automatic reinforcement, as identified via a functional analysis. Both noncontingent reinforcement (NCR) with preferred edible items and punishment, in the form of a facial screen, were implemented separately to evaluate their independent effects on the occurrence of rumination. The final treatment package included both NCR and punishment procedures. Implementation of the combined treatment resulted in a 96.5% reduction in rumination relative to baseline. Procedural modifications and integrity errors also were evaluated.

The effects of variable-time versus contingent reinforcement delivery on problem behavior maintained by escape.

Results of previous research indicate that the delivery of positive reinforcement (e.g., food) for an appropriate, alternative target response (e.g., compliance) or delivery of food on a time-based schedule can decrease problem behavior reinforced by escape, even when problem behavior continues to produce negative reinforcement (e.g., Lalli et al., ; Lomas, Fisher, & Kelley, ). In this study, we compared the levels of both compliance and problem behavior when food and praise were delivered either contingent on compliance or on a time-based schedule. Results for 3 of the 4 participants showed that contingent delivery of preferred edible items and praise was more effective in both reducing problem behavior and increasing compliance compared to variable-time delivery of these same items. These findings are discussed in the context of motivating operations and competition between positive and negative reinforcement.

AN ANALYSIS OF MODIFICATIONS TO THE THREE‐STEP GUIDED COMPLIANCE PROCEDURE NECESSARY TO ACHIEVE COMPLIANCE AMONG PRESCHOOL CHILDREN

After a 3-step guided compliance procedure (vocal prompt, vocal plus model prompt, vocal prompt plus physical guidance) did not increase compliance, we evaluated 2 modifications with 4 preschool children who exhibited noncompliance. The first modification consisted of omission of the model prompt, and the second modification consisted of omitting the model prompt and decreasing the interprompt interval from 10s to 5s. Each of the modifications effectively increased compliance for 1 participant. For the remaining 2 participants, neither modification was effective; differential reinforcement in the form of contingent access to a preferred edible item was necessary to increase compliance. Problem behavior varied across participants, but was generally higher during guided compliance conditions and lower during differential reinforcement conditions.

Increasing compliance with haircuts in a child with autism

AbstractUsing a changing‐criterion design, we evaluated the effects of providing a preferred edible item and escape from sitting contingent on a child's compliance with sitting during haircuts. Results indicated that the intervention eliminated the child's escape responses and increased his sitting to a duration that permitted regular haircuts by his mother. Follow‐up sessions showed that the participant's increased compliance during haircuts continued for over 2 months. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

ASSESSING THE VALUE OF CHOICE IN A TOKEN SYSTEM

Responding of 4 children was assessed under conditions in which (a) no programmed contingencies were arranged for target behavior, (b) responding produced tokens that could be exchanged for a single highly preferred edible item, and (c) responding produced a token that could be exchanged for a variety of preferred edible items. After assessing the effects of these contingencies, the preferences of 3 participants were assessed using a concurrent-chains schedule. Preference for the opportunity to choose from the same or qualitatively different edible items varied across participants, and findings were generally consistent with those of Tiger, Hanley, and Hernandez (2006).

EXAMINING THE GENERALITY OF CHILDREN'S PREFERENCE FOR CONTINGENT REINFORCEMENT VIA EXTENSION TO DIFFERENT RESPONSES, REINFORCERS, AND SCHEDULES

Studies that have assessed whether children prefer contingent reinforcement (CR) or noncontingent reinforcement (NCR) have shown that they prefer CR. Preference for CR has, however, been evaluated only under continuous reinforcement (CRF) schedules. The prevalence of intermittent reinforcement (INT) warrants an evaluation of whether preference for CR persists as the schedule of reinforcement is thinned. In the current study, we evaluated 2 children's preference for contingent versus noncontingent delivery of highly preferred edible items for academic task completion under CRF and INT schedules. Children (a) preferred CR to NCR under the CRF schedule, (b) continued to prefer CR as the schedule of reinforcement became intermittent, and (c) exhibited a shift in preference from CR to NCR as the schedule became increasingly thin. These findings extend the generality of and provide one set of limits to the preference for CR. Applied implications, variables controlling preferences, and future research are discussed.

THE EFFECTS OF VARIABLE‐TIME DELIVERY OF FOOD ITEMS AND PRAISE ON PROBLEM BEHAVIOR REINFORCED BY ESCAPE

Prior research indicates that reinforcement of an appropriate response (e.g., compliance) can produce concomitant reductions in problem behavior reinforced by escape when problem behavior continues to produce negative reinforcement (e.g., Lalli et al., 1999). These effects may be due to a preference for positive over negative reinforcement or to positive reinforcement acting as an abolishing operation, rendering demands less aversive and escape from demands less effective as negative reinforcement. In the current investigation, we delivered a preferred food item and praise on a variable-time 15-s schedule while providing escape for problem behavior on a fixed-ratio 1 schedule in a demand condition for 3 participants with problem behavior maintained by negative reinforcement. Results for all 3 participants showed that variable-time delivery of preferred edible items reduced problem behavior even though escape continued to be available for these responses. These findings are discussed in the context of motivating operations.

Further evaluation of the effects of motivating operations on preference assessment outcomes

The abative effects of a 10-min period of free access to a participant's most preferred edible on preference assessment outcomes was examined using a multielement design with three individuals diagnosed with autism. Four moderately preferred edible items were identified for each participant; access to these edibles was then regulated throughout the study, to control for the number of edibles consumed. Four-item paired stimulus preference assessments were then conducted, under four treatment conditions. A control condition, which involved conducting four-item paired stimulus assessments, was used to determine baseline levels of preference for each edible. Preference assessments conducted under the other three treatment conditions were preceded by a 10-min period of free access to the participant's most preferred edible. The immediate condition involved conducting preference assessments immediately following the 10-min free-access period. The 10-min delay condition and the 20-min delay condition involved conducting preference assessments following a 10-min or 20-min delay after the free access period. For two participants, 10-min of free access to a preferred edible immediately prior to a preference assessment altered the probability of selecting that stimulus, but as the delay between the free-access period and the preference assessment increased, the abative effects became less apparent. For the third participant, preference did not change when assessments were immediately conducted following the 10-min period of free access. Implications of the study are discussed.

A comparison of stimulus-stimulus pairing, standard echoic training, and control procedures on the vocal behavior of children with autism.

An alternating treatments design was employed to compare the effect of stimulus-stimulus pairing, standard echoic training, and a control condition on the vocal behavior of 3 preschoolers with autism. Data were recorded during pre- and postsession observations. During the stimulus-stimulus pairing condition, the experimenter's vocal model was paired with the delivery of a preferred item. During the standard echoic training condition, the experimenter presented a vocal model and delivered a preferred item contingent on an echoic response. During the control condition, the experimenter presented a vocal model and, after a 10-s delay, presented a preferred edible item. Results from the post-session observations during the stimulus-stimulus pairing condition showed an immediate but temporary increase in the target sound for 1 participant only. Implications and suggestions for future research are provided.

EVALUATING PRESCHOOL CHILDREN'S PREFERENCES FOR MOTIVATIONAL SYSTEMS DURING INSTRUCTION

Preschool teachers rely on several strategies for motivating children to participate in learning activities. In the current study, we evaluated the effectiveness of and preference for three teaching contexts in which embedded, sequential, or no programmed reinforcement was arranged. The embedded context included highly preferred teaching materials, the sequential context included highly preferred edible items for correct responding, and a control context included neither. In addition, an exclusively play-oriented activity was included as a fourth option to determine if one of the direct teaching contexts could compete with a relatively unstructured and exclusively child-led activity. All participants preferred the sequential context (use of high-quality consequences) over the embedded context (use of high-quality teaching materials), 2 of the 4 participants preferred some motivational system to none at all, and the play area was selected over all variants of the instructional contexts during the majority of trials. We found either no or small differences in correct responding in the different instructional contexts; however, rates of undesirable behavior were highest in the least preferred interaction area for 3 of the 4 participants. Implications for the design of effective and preferred teaching environments for young children are discussed.

The use of functional communication training to reduce pica.

Abstract Pica is an eating disorder characterized by the ingestion of inappropriate items. The items may range from relatively harmless materials (e.g., food from the floor, grass) to other substances (e.g., glass) with risk for serious health problems or even death. Previous studies have shown that behavioral techniques are effective for decreasing pica, but few studies have assessed this in naturalistic settings. The current paper describes a study conducted in a classroom setting in which functional communication was taught to a 6-year-old boy with autism to replace pica. Differential reinforcement of functional communication behavior was used to teach the boy to request food rather than to engage in pica. This procedure decreased the boy's frequency of pica and of attempted pica. Keywords: pica, autism; differential reinforcement; functional communication training; manding. Introduction Pica is an eating disorder often displayed by persons with developmental disabilities (Singh, 1983). It is typically defined as either the consumption of non-food items or the compulsive consumption of both food and non-food items (Albin, 1977; Paisey & Whitney, 1989). Many individuals with pica ingest items that are relatively harmless, such as food from the floor, grass, or bugs (Johnson et al., 1994; Fisher et al., 1994). However, some individuals with pica ingest items (e.g., glass) that can lead to serious digestive problems, health issues, and possibly death (Rojahn et al., 1987). Several literature reviews describe interventions for persons who present with pica (e.g., McAdam, Sherman, Sheldon, & Napolitano, 2004). In one recent review McAdam et al. (2004) summarized the various behavioral interventions that have been demonstrated to produce a clinically significant reduction in pica, including differential reinforcement, overcorrection, contingent aversive presentations, and discrimination training. However, this review also found that the majority of published studies used intervention packages that included a punishment component. Moreover, few of the studies were conducted in natural settings (e.g., public schools, community-based agencies for adults with developmental disabilities). Three published studies have demonstrated that differential reinforcement as the primary independent variable was successful in decreasing the pica of 6 persons with developmental disabilities. In one of these studies, Goh, Iwata, & Kahng, (1999), used naturalistic observations to assess the function of cigarette pica performed by three adult males and one female with developmental disabilities in a state residential facility. The function of pica for all participants was determined to be automatic reinforcement. That is, each participant's pica was maintained by non-socially mediated variables. Next, a series of preference assessments were conducted to identify the specific reinforcing aspect of the cigarette (e.g., the unsmoked filter) and to identify high preference items that could function as competing reinforcers. Initially, for three of the participants, the authors assessed the affect of satiation by providing preferred edible items every 10 seconds, for 5 minutes, prior to the start of a session. Next, the participants were taught to hand a cigarette to their therapist and all attempts to engage in pica were blocked. For the fourth participant, a punishment procedure was used in addition to non-contingent reinforcement to reduce the participant's pica. In another study, Donnelly and Olczak (1990) used differential reinforcement of an alternative behavior (DRA) to compete with the cigarette pica of two adult males. Both participants were differentially reinforced for chewing sugarless mint gum. The results demonstrated that gum chewing successfully competed with the participant's pica. Smith (1987) used verbal prompting (don't touch) and differential reinforcement of incompatible behavior (DRI) to reduce the pica of an adult male participating in community-based supportive employment. …

MOTIVATIONAL INFLUENCES ON PERFORMANCE MAINTAINED BY FOOD REINFORCEMENT

In Study 1, we examined the independent effects of reinforcer consumption during sessions and meal consumption prior to sessions on performance maintained by food reinforcement. Nine individuals with developmental disabilities participated. On alternate days, a preferred edible item was delivered during (a) seven sessions conducted before lunch (repeated-reinforcement condition) versus (b) one session each conducted before and after lunch (pre- and postmeal conditions). Results for 7 of 9 participants showed decreased response rates across sessions in the repeated-reinforcement condition; results for 3 of 9 participants showed decreased rates during postmeal relative to premeal conditions. Two participants who did not show a decrement in responding during either comparison participated in Study 2, in which reinforcer consumption during sessions, combined with meal consumption prior to sessions, also had no effect on their performance. In Study 3, we determined whether (a) choice of reinforcers, (b) increased break time between sessions, (c) varied reinforcers, or (d) intermittent reinforcement schedules mitigated the satiation effects observed for the 7 participants in Study 1. Presession choice of reinforcers resulted in maintained performance for 2 of 6 participants exposed to this condition. Varied reinforcement resulted in maintained performance for only 1 of 5 participants exposed to this condition. Neither the increased break between sessions nor the intermittent reinforcement schedule was effective in maintaining performance for the participants who were exposed to these conditions.

Social interaction skills for children with autism: a script-fading procedure for nonreaders

Engaging in spontaneous social exchanges is a central skill deficit of children with autism, and one that is often difficult to remediate. The 3 boys (ages 4, 4, and 5 years) who participated in this study had acquired small verbal repertoires, but typically spoke only when answering questions or requesting preferred edible items or toys, and did not converse with a familiar teacher during baseline. During teaching, textual cues (‘‘Look’’ and ‘‘Watch me’’) were embedded in the youngsters’ photographic activity schedules; after learning to use the scripts, the children’s verbal elaborations and unscripted interactions increased and were maintained when a new recipient of interaction was introduced. After scripts were faded, unscripted interactions not only continued but also generalized to different activities that had not been the topic of teaching. The script-fading procedure enabled children with autism to converse with adults, to benefit from adults’ language models, and to engage in language practice that contributes to fluency. DESCRIPTORS: autistic children, antecedent control, pictorial cues, social interaction, script fading