Subjective Preference Research Articles

Enhanced Visual Performance for In–Vehicle Reading Task Evaluated by Preferences, Emotions and Sustained Attention

The proliferation of electric and hybrid vehicles has made it possible for people to read and work in a stationary vehicle for extended periods. However, the current commonly used in–vehicle lighting design is still centered around driving and driving safety. Following recommendations from the literature, a neutral white color band (4000 K–5000 K) with 50–100 lx at the vehicle table area is favored. Whether this lighting environment can meet the needs to enhance the reading performance in a modern vehicle was investigated in this presented study. Therefore, in total, 12 lighting settings were designed based on combinations of four illuminance levels (50 lx, 100 lx, 150 lx and 200 lx) and three correlated color temperatures (3000 K, 4000 K and 5000 K); we recruited 19 subjects (12 females, 7 males) and let study participants evaluate each condition based on electronic and paper reading. Next, subjective preferences, positive and negative emotions, feeling of fatigue and sustained attention were tested. We found that higher illuminance and higher CCT (Correlated Color Temperature) can significantly improve the performance of in–vehicle readers in most aspects following Kruithof’s law (p < 0.05). Among them, we recommend the combination of 150 lx and 4000 K as the light parameters for in–vehicle reading as a new development guideline. In addition, we also discovered the inconsistency of people’s lighting preferences between in–vehicle spaces and conventional spaces. For indoor lighting, illuminance values up to 1000 lx are still favored. For an in–vehicle function, starting with 200 lx, the preference level and reading performance already declined. In comparison between electronic and paper reading, both were similarly evaluated. These results show that a neutral white light color should be chosen with a horizontal illuminance of maximal 150 lx for a reading light function independent of the reading device. Interdisciplinarily speaking, our findings can be applied in similar small spaces or transportation modes with gentle acceleration and deceleration such as small space hotel rooms, trains, airplanes or ships.

The Effect of Touchscreen Layout Division on the Usability and Driving Safety of In-Vehicle Information Systems

Compared to traditional physical controls, in-vehicle touchscreen interaction relies more on vision. Irrational In-Vehicle Information System (IVIS) interface layout design can lead to decreased driver performance and even serious traffic accidents. This study investigated the impact of IVIS layouts on usability and driving safety. We extracted and analyzed the current mainstream IVIS homepage layouts in the market and summarized four different layout structures. An experiment was conducted on a driving simulator to examine the usability of the IVIS layout design based on task reaction time, error rate, NASA-TLX (a subjective workload assessment scale developed by NASA), and subjective preference (PREF). The safety issues of IVIS layout design were also examined based on standard deviation lane position (SDLP), speed variation (SV), mean glance time, mean number of glances, and blink frequency. This study recorded and evaluated the driving performance of 40 participants during real driving tasks at four speeds (0, 60, 90, and 120 km/h). Results showed that there were significant differences in task reaction time, NASA-TLX, PREF, mean glance time, SDLP, and SV among the four layouts. Furthermore, we observed that these four layouts had varying effects on usability and driving safety at four speeds. In the stationary state, the three-partition layouts were more efficient, while the two-partition layouts had more advantages during driving. Meanwhile, the horizontal dock bar layout interfaces have more advantages compared to the vertical dock bar interface. The study provides empirical evidence for optimizing the IVIS interface layout design for enhanced usability and driving safety.

Risk assessment of deep-sea floating offshore wind power projects based on hesitant fuzzy linguistic term set considering trust relationship among experts.

The development of deep-sea floating offshore wind power (FOWP) is the key to fully utilizing water resources to enhance wind resources in the years ahead, and then the project is still in its initial stage, and identifying risks is a crucial step before promoting a significant undertaking. This paper proposes a framework for identifying risks in deep-sea FOWP projects. First, this paper identifies 16 risk criteria and divides them into 5 groups to establish a criteria system. Second, hesitant fuzzy linguistic term set (HFLTS) and triangular fuzzy number (TFN) are utilized to gather and describe the criterion data to ensure the robustness and completeness of the criterion data. Third, extending the method for removal effects of criteria (MEREC) to the HFLTS environment through the conversion of TFNs, under the influence of subjective preference and objective fairness, a weighting method combining analytic network process (ANP) and MEREC is utilized to calculate criteria weights, and the trust relationship and consistency between experts are used to calculate the expert weights to avoid the subjective weighting given by experts arbitrariness. Fourth, the study's findings indicated that the overall risk level of the deep-sea FOWP projects is "medium." Fifth, sensitivity and comparative analyses were conducted to test the reliability of the assessment outcomes. lastly, this research proposes risk management measures for the deep-sea FOWP project's establishment from economic, policy, technology, environment, and management aspects.

The Importance of Linguistic Factors: He Likes Subject Referents.

We report the results of one visual-world eye-tracking experiment and two referent selection tasks in which we investigated the effects of information structure in the form of prosody and word order manipulation on the processing of subject pronouns er and der in German. Factors such as subjecthood, focus, and topicality, as well as order of mention have been linked to an increased probability of certain referents being selected as the pronoun's antecedent and described as increasing this referent's prominence, salience, or accessibility. The goal of this study was to find out whether pronoun processing is primarily guided by linguistic factors (e.g., grammatical role) or nonlinguistic factors (e.g., first-mention), and whether pronoun interpretation can be described in terms of referents' "prominence"/"accessibility"/"salience." The results showed an overall subject preference for er, whereas der was affected by the object role and focus marking. While focus increases the attentional load and enhances memory representation for the focused referent making the focused referent more available, ultimately it did not affect the final interpretation of er, suggesting that "prominence" or the related concepts do not explain referent selection preferences. Overall, the results suggest a primacy of linguistic factors in determining pronounresolution.

Research on Product Conceptual Design Scheme Configurations from a Designer–User Conflict Perspective

In the context of rapid product iteration, design conflicts arise from discrepancies in designers’ understanding of user needs, influenced by subjective preferences, behavioural stances, and other factors. This paper proposes a product conceptual design approach based on the design conflict perspective. First, user comments and design documents are collected. Natural language processing (NLP) methods, including cleaning, filtering, lexical segmentation, feature clustering, and sentiment analysis, are employed to identify design themes. The intuitionistic fuzzy sets (IFSs) and term frequency–inverse document frequency (TF-IDF) algorithms are then utilized to obtain evaluation matrices for the products from both users and designers. Subsequently, design conflicts between users and designers are calculated, and an optimal configuration for product conceptual design is determined through regression analysis and planning methods. Finally, the proposed method is validated using a mobile phone as a product example, and suggestions for product improvement are presented. The results indicate that considering design conflicts as a factor in product design and synthesizing designer and user product concepts enhance the accuracy and reliability of product conceptual design generation. The findings of this study offer new insights into the conceptual design configuration for product iteration.

Evaluation of intercity road passenger transportation using a novel double-frontier game-regret-cross-efficiency

The Cross-Efficiency (CE) method, based on Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA), is a commonly used approach to measure the efficiency of Decision-Making Units (DMUs). Various secondary goal models can yield different efficiency results. The recently developed Game CE (GCE) method aims to address this issue and achieve convergence efficiencies. However, the conventional GCE was developed under the unrealistic assumption that Decision Makers (DMs) are perfectly rational, as it relies on the arithmetic mean aggregation method. Additionally, the GCE evaluates DMUs based on efficient reference points, disregarding the pessimistic perspective. The study introduces a new aggregation method called Regret-Consensus Aggregation (RCA) that captures the subjective preferences of DMs. GCE-RCA scores are obtained by incorporating RCA into the GCE. A new method called Game Cross In-Efficiency (GCIE) with RCA (GCIE-RCA) has been developed to incorporate anti-efficient reference points into the evaluation process. A Double-Frontier GCE based on the RCA (DFGCE-RCA) is developed from two perspectives. The DFGCE-RCA is implemented to evaluate the performance of the Iranian Inter-City Road Passenger Transportation (IC-RPT) system based on six key performance indicators. DFGCE-RCA has several advantages in addition to those of GCE. Firstly, considering two perspectives provides more comprehensive results. Additionally, it can capture the subjective perspectives of DMs. Lastly; it enables the aggregation process to reach a consensus.

Towards Running Time Analysis of Interactive Multi-Objective Evolutionary Algorithms

Evolutionary algorithms (EAs) are widely used for multi-objective optimization due to their population-based nature. Traditional multi-objective EAs (MOEAs) generate a large set of solutions to approximate the Pareto front, leaving a decision maker (DM) with the task of selecting a preferred solution. However, this process can be inefficient and time-consuming, especially when there are many objectives or the DM has subjective preferences. To address this issue, interactive MOEAs (iMOEAs) combine decision making into the optimization process, i.e., update the population with the help of the DM. In contrast to their wide applications, there has existed only two pieces of theoretical works on iMOEAs, which only considered interactive variants of the two simple single-objective algorithms, RLS and (1+1)-EA. This paper provides the first running time analysis (the essential theoretical aspect of EAs) for practical iMOEAs. Specifically, we prove that the expected running time of the well-developed interactive NSGA-II (called R-NSGA-II) for solving the OneMinMax, OneJumpZeroJump problems are all asymptotically faster than the traditional NSGA-II. Meanwhile, we present a variant of OneMinMax, and prove that R-NSGA-II can be exponentially slower than NSGA-II. These results provide theoretical justification for the effectiveness of iMOEAs while identifying situations where they may fail. Experiments are also conducted to validate the theoretical results.

Evaluation of ecotourism suitability based on AHP-GIS: Taking Xiaoxiangling area of the Giant Panda National Park and the surrounding communities as an example.

The primary goal of national parks is to protect ecological environment, but also with the functions of scientific research, education, and recreation. Aiming for the realization of universal sharing, we used the analytic hierarchy process (AHP) to construct an ecotourism suitability evaluation system by selecting four factors, including landscape resources, ecological environment carrying capacity, recreation utilization capacity and social condition, taking Xiaoxiangling area of Giant Panda National Park and the surrounding communities as an example. We evaluated the ecotourism suitability based on GIS, and conducted a questionnaire survey of tourists, to propose suggestions on the functional zoning in terms of ecotourism suitability and subjective choice preferences of tourists. The results showed that the ecotourism suitability of the evaluation area could be classified into five levels. The most suitable areas were located nearby the natural landscape resources and far away from the core conservation area, and the least suitable areas distributed at the edge of the core conservation area. According to the results of suitability analysis, the evaluation area was divided into suitable development area, moderate development area, and restricted development area. Combined with the tourist preferences, we divided the recreational activities in the evaluation area into seven activities, namely, ecotourism, eco-camping, science education, leisure vacation, agricultural and animal husbandry culture experience, eco-education, and mountain adventure. These findings could help provide suitable services for different tourists and offer reference for the ecotourism developmental planning of the Xiaoxiangling area of the Giant Panda National Park.

수요자 기반 노동인권 심화 교육의 방향성 탐색

Objectives This study aimed to investigate and categorize the perceived demand for advanced labor rights education among undergraduate students at J University, with the purpose of designing and improving tailored educational approaches based on diverse subjective perceptions and preferences.
 Methods This study utilized the Q methodology to categorize the perceived educational demand of 20 undergraduate students at J University into three types. Through the standard scores of key Q statements specific to each type and the differences in standard scores compared to other types, the characteristics of each type were analyzed in detail.
 Results Through factor analysis using the QUANL program, three learner groups were distinguished: those aspiring to protect their own labor rights, those aiming to cultivate a proper sensitivity to labor rights, and those desiring to comprehend the values of labor and labor movements. By conducting a comparative analysis of these groups, differences in the demand for labor rights education among university students were identified.
 Conclusions Based on the analysis results, this study has proposed the direction for advanced labor rights education needed by university students at J University. The analytical process and outcomes of this research are expected to serve as a significant foundation for designing fundamental and advanced labor rights education in diverse universities in the future.

The influence of the reference level on loudness and preference judgements for spectrally manipulated fan sounds.

Fan sounds are often quantified using A-weighted sound pressure levels, silently acknowledging their limitations to fully capture the perceived unpleasantness. To overcome this limitation, level adjustments are a way to quantify the subjective preference of spectrally different sounds in listening experiments by adjusting the level of a test sound until it is equally preferred to a fixed reference sound. Since equal loudness contours differ, depending on the overall level, level adjustments might vary for different levels of the reference sound. This study aims to quantify the effects of spectral manipulations on level adjustments for loudness and preference judgements at reference sound pressure levels of either 45, 60, or 75 dB(A). Level adjustments of up to 12 dB were measured to make the stimuli equally preferred to the reference, particularly for sounds with prominent high-frequency components. The loudness and preference judgements were closely linked with each other, but an offset of about 3.5 dB at a reference level of 45 dB(A) indicates that equal loudness is not synonymous with equal preference. A linear regression model to predict level adjustments based on the reference level and an index reflecting the ratio of mid- to high-frequency loudness explains 73% of the variance.

Perception about Community Medicine as a subject and career preference among undergraduate students

Background: In the pursuit of cultivating primary physicians, the Department of Community Medicine (CM) emphasizes value-based education for undergraduates, aiming to shape the foundation of a first-contact doctor. Despite this, only a minority ultimately selects CM as their specialty. Aim & Objectives: The objective of this study was to evaluate how undergraduates perceive CM as both a subject and a career choice. Additionally, the study aimed to identify the factors influencing students' decisions to either choose or not choose CM as a career path. Methods and Material: We conducted a cross-sectional survey among medical college undergraduates, utilizing a pre-tested, self-administered questionnaire with a Likert scale through Google Forms, ensuring informed consent. Results: Among 411 students, 259 participated, with a mean age of 21.23 ± 1.39 years. While participants generally held a positive perception of CM, only 1.1% considered it as a career choice. Top reasons against opting CM were "unpopularity compared to clinical subjects," "lack of clinical exposure," and "insufficient information on future prospects." Conclusion: Students recognize the significance of CM and possess a positive opinion, yet there exists reluctance in choosing it as a career.

Three-phase multi-criteria ranking considering three-way decision framework and criterion fuzzy concept

The criterion fuzzy concept refers to a fuzzy set that represents the decision-maker's subjective preference for each criterion within the universe of criteria. Addressing the challenge of ranking all alternatives based on a given criterion fuzzy concept is a novel research direction in the field of fuzzy multi-criteria ranking issues. This paper proposes a three-phase approach for multi-criteria ranking in fuzzy environments, which combines the criterion fuzzy concept and three-way decision thinking. The proposed approach not only analyzes the decision-making characteristics of all alternatives but also facilitates their ranking. During the first phase, a qualitative classification method based on the criterion fuzzy concept and ideal solutions is defined, which divides all alternatives into three independent decision sub-regions. During the second phase, by analyzing the priority relationships among the alternatives within every sub-region, three local ranking rules for alternatives are proposed to determine the ranking of alternatives in each classification region. During the third phase, the semantic relations among three classification regions are considered to give an overall ranking of all alternatives. Finally, combined with two existing quantitative ranking indicators, multiple data sets are employed to verify the feasibility and superiority of the proposed three-phase multi-criteria ranking approach.

A supplier selection method based on cobweb similarity and prospect theory for prefabricated components

Selecting suppliers for prefabricated components (PCs) involves a complex decision-making process, frequently relying on ambiguous information and subjective judgment. However, most existing methods use precise values to portray indicator information and overlook the uncertainty of weights and the subjective preferences of decision-makers (DMs). In order to address these limits, this paper proposes a novel approach to select suppliers of PCs. Initially, an evaluation index system for suppliers is established through literature analysis and a questionnaire survey. The system comprises six layers: product quality, price, service level, comprehensive ability, supply ability, and environmental sustainability. The group decision matrix is then constructed using the set-valued statistical method and the prospect theory. The index weights are determined by a combination weighting method. Next, the cobweb model is introduced to analyze the disparity between the alternative and ideal solutions, describing their similarities in terms of area and shape. Lastly, cobweb similarity is employed instead of comprehensive distance, combined with the minimum sum of squares criterion, to improve the closeness algorithm and contrast the alternatives. The results demonstrate that this method facilitates a comprehensive evaluation of the benefits and drawbacks of various alternatives from diverse perspectives. Furthermore, it allows flexible adjustments based on the risk preferences of DMs, ensuring accurate and reliable decision results.

The comparison of students' academic stress in biology class at public and private high schools

<p>Students are demanded by school assignments, and many of them feel under pressure when learning biology. This situation is a trigger for academic stress which has an impact on student achievement. This study aims to identify and compare the factors that influence academic stress on students studying biology at the senior high school level. The research method used was an ex post facto survey using a sample of 54 students with an age range between 16-18 years. Data were obtained through a questionnaire with 9 scales of answer choices and interviews. The results showed that the level of preference for biology subjects for both public and private high school students was quite good, but most students experienced academic stress with a fairly high category in terms of motivation, self-confidence, the education system, teachers, and school conditions. This research implies that teachers are expected to create learning strategies by paying attention to the psychological conditions of students so that student learning outcomes can be maximized.</p>

The Role of Explanability in AI-Driven Fashion Recommendation Model - A Review

Abstract: Fashion recommendation systems powered by AI have transformed the way consumers discover clothing and accessories. However, these systems often lack transparency, leaving users in the dark about why certain recommendations are made. This review paper explores "The Role of Explainability in AI-Driven Fashion Recommendation Models." We begin by establishing the fundamentals of AI-driven fashion recommendations and the challenges they face, such as subjective fashion preferences and the need to balance personalization and diversity. The paper also explores evaluation metrics for measuring the effectiveness of explainability, considering user satisfaction, trust, and system performance. Ethical concerns related to bias and fairness in fashion recommendations are discussed, with explainability playing a crucial role in addressing these issues.

On the universality of the subject preference in the acquisition of relative clauses across languages

Subject relative clauses (RCs) have been shown to be acquired earlier, comprehended more accurately, and produced more easily than object RCs by children. While this subject preference is often claimed to be a universal tendency, it has largely been investigated piecemeal and with low-powered experiments. To address these issues, this meta-analysis follows an established and rigorous scientific method to test the generalizability of the subject preference in RC acquisition by evaluating the collective evidence. While the results show a significant crosslinguistic subject preference, there is a large amount of heterogeneity in the data. The manifestation of this subject preference may not be uniform across languages, depending on typological properties such as language headedness, RC headedness, and main clause similarity. The true impact of these features, however, requires research on more typologically diverse languages.

Effects of Screen Color Mode and Color Temperature on Visual Fatigue under Different Ambient Illuminations

Viewing electronic screens for a long time can cause visual fatigue, even induce eye problems such as refractive errors, dry eyes, etc. The relationship between screen display and visual fatigue has received much attention. This article aims to study the optimal display color temperature and color mode under two common ambient illuminations—normal office lighting (450 lux) and dark environment (3 lux). In a 2 × 2×3 experimental design, 36 participants evaluated the effects of two display color modes (light mode and dark mode) and three screen color temperatures (2800 K, 4500 K, and 6500 K) on visual fatigue under two ambient illuminations. We used eye movement tracking technology to collect blink rate and pupil diameters as objective indicators and used the Richter scale to collect subjective visual fatigue and preference score as subjective indicators. Results showed that at 450 lux, lower visual fatigue was found in the dark mode, 4500 K and 6500 K. At 3 lux, the visual fatigue was lower in the dark mode and 4500 K color temperature. Whether at daytime or night, the 2800 K color temperature resulted in the highest visual fatigue. Our findings complement the research on screen display and visual fatigue. They have practical implications for reducing visual fatigue caused by prolonged viewing of electronic screens.

Effects of a Powered Ankle-Foot Prosthesis and Physical Therapy on Function for Individuals With Transfemoral Limb Loss: Rationale, Design, and Protocol for a Multisite Clinical Trial.

Powered ankle-foot prosthetic devices can generate net positive mechanical work during gait, which mimics the physiological ankle. However, gait deviations can persist in individuals with transfemoral limb loss because of habit or lack of rehabilitation. Prosthetic research efforts favor the design or evaluation of prosthetic componentry and rarely incorporate any type of rehabilitation, despite evidence suggesting that it is critical for minimizing gait imbalances. Given the accelerated rate of innovation in prosthetics, there is a fundamental knowledge gap concerning how individuals with transfemoral limb loss should learn to correctly use powered ankle-foot devices for maximum functional benefit. Because of the recent advances in prosthetic technology, there is also a critical unmet need to develop guidelines for the prescription of advanced prosthetic devices that incorporate both physical and psychological components to identify appropriate candidates for advanced technology. The primary goal of this investigation is to examine the roles of advanced prosthetic technology and a device-specific rehabilitative intervention on gait biomechanics, functional efficacy, and pain in individuals with transfemoral limb loss. The secondary goal is to develop preliminary rehabilitation guidelines for advanced lower limb prosthetic devices to minimize gait imbalances and maximize function and to establish preliminary guidelines for powered ankle-foot prosthetic prescription. This prospective, multisite study will enroll 30 individuals with unilateral transfemoral limb loss. At baseline, participants will undergo a full gait analysis and assessment of function, neurocognition, cognitive load, subjective preferences, and pain using their current passive prosthesis. The participants will then be fitted with a powered ankle-foot device and randomized into 2 equal groups: a powered device with a device-specific rehabilitation intervention (group A) or a powered device with the current standard of practice (group B). Group A will undergo 4 weeks of device-specific rehabilitation. Group B will receive the current standard of practice, which includes basic device education but no further device-specific rehabilitation. Data collection procedures will then be repeated after 4 weeks and 8 weeks of powered ankle use. This study was funded in September 2017. Enrollment began in September 2018. Data collection will conclude by March 2024. The initial dissemination of results is expected in August 2024. The projected trends indicate that the number of individuals with limb loss will dramatically increase in the United States. The absence of effective, evidence-based interventions may make individuals with transfemoral limb loss more susceptible to increased secondary physical conditions and degenerative changes. With this expected growth, considerable resources will be required for prosthetic and rehabilitation services. Identifying potential mechanisms for correcting gait asymmetries, either through advanced prosthetic technology or rehabilitative interventions, can provide a benchmark for understanding the optimal treatment strategies for individuals with transfemoral limb loss. ClinicalTrials.gov NCT03625921; https://clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT03625921. DERR1-10.2196/53412.

New energy vehicle battery recycling strategy considering carbon emotion from a closed-loop supply chain perspective

The negative impact of used batteries of new energy vehicles on the environment has attracted global attention, and how to effectively deal with used batteries of new energy vehicles has become a hot issue. This paper combines the rank-dependent expected utility with the evolutionary game theory, constructs an evolutionary game model based on the interaction mechanism between decision makers' emotions and decision making, and studies the recycling strategy of new energy automobile trams under the heterogeneous combination of emotions. The study shows that: (1) In addition to the establishment of effective external norms, the subjective preference of decision makers can also positively affect the recycling strategy of new energy vehicle batteries. (2) Fairness preferences can have a significant nonlinear effect on new energy vehicle battery recycling strategies by changing the utility function of decision makers. (3) When new energy vehicle manufacturers remain optimistic and new energy vehicle demanders remain rational or pessimistic, the new energy vehicle battery recycling strategy can reach the optimal steady state.

A spectro-temporal modulation test for predicting speech reception in hearing-impaired listeners with hearing aids

Spectro-temporal modulation (STM) detection sensitivity has been shown to be associated with speech-in-noise reception in hearing-impaired (HI) individuals. Based on previous research, a recent study [Zaar, Simonsen, Dau, and Laugesen (2023). Hear Res 427:108650] introduced an STM test paradigm with audibility compensation, employing STM stimulus variants using noise and complex tones as carrier signals. The study demonstrated that the test was suitable for the target population of elderly individuals with moderate-to-severe hearing loss and showed promising predictions of speech-reception thresholds (SRTs) measured in a realistic set up with spatially distributed speech and noise maskers and linear audibility compensation. The present study further investigated the suggested STM test with respect to (i) test-retest variability for the most promising STM stimulus variants, (ii) its predictive power with respect to realistic speech-in-noise reception with non-linear hearing-aid amplification, (iii) its connection to effects of directionality and noise reduction (DIR+NR) hearing-aid processing, and (iv) its relation to DIR+NR preference. Thirty elderly HI participants were tested in a combined laboratory and field study, collecting STM thresholds with a complex-tone based and a noise-based STM stimulus design, SRTs with spatially distributed speech and noise maskers using hearing aids with non-linear amplification and two different levels of DIR+NR, as well as subjective reports and preference ratings obtained in two field periods with the two DIR+NR hearing-aid settings. The results indicate that the noise-carrier based STM test variant (i) showed optimal test-retest properties, (ii) yielded a highly significant correlation with SRTs (R2=0.61) exceeding and complementing the predictive power of the audiogram, (iii) yielded significant correlation (R2=0.51) with the DIR+NR-induced SRT benefit, and (iv) did not provide significant correlation with subjective preference for DIR+NR settings in the field. Overall, the suggested STM test represents a valuable tool for diagnosing speech-reception problems that remain when hearing-aid amplification has been provided and the resulting need for and benefit from DIR+NR hearing-aid processing.