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Short-term Change in Forest Metrics at Grand Portage National Monument, Minnesota

Forest health monitoring programs can provide routine feedback of key indices and periodic updates of ecosystem health. A forest monitoring program was initiated at Grand Portage National Monument in 2007 with plots resampled in 2014. Grand Portage National Monument is within the southern boreal forest and the suitable habitat for most of its common overstorey species is expected to shift northward and out of the park as climate change progresses. We assessed short-term change in forest health on 20 plots by specifically evaluating change in overstorey density and basal area, forest community composition, and White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) browsing impacts on the herbaceous layer. Pooled across all overstorey species, both density and basal area increased between sampling events, but neither differed among habitats. For individual species of interest, responses were varied, although balsam Fir (Abies balsamea) increased in both density and basal area over the seven years. The frequency of quadrats supporting at least one preferred browse species did not differ between sampling years although this was greater in upland plots (81%) compared with wet mesic sites (66%). The effect of sampling year on species’ richness depended on habitat. In 2007, richness was higher in upland plots, although in 2014, richness was higher in wet mesic plots. Pooled across both sampling years, modified floristic quality index was greater in wet mesic plots. Our work demonstrates the increasing dominance of A. balsamea at Grand Portage National Monument and that notable differences in forest metrics can be observed over relatively short times.

Summer-fall home-range fidelity of female elk in northwestern Colorado: Implications for aspen management

Understanding the degree of spatial fidelity exhibited by individuals within a species increases our ability to manage for desired future outcomes. Elk (Cervus elaphus) is a closely managed species in the Western US, but there is little research evaluating their summer home-range fidelity. Elk summer-fall home-ranges overlap considerably with aspen (Populus tremuloides)-dominated forest types, and elk can impact aspen regeneration because it is a preferred browse species. We evaluated the fidelity of 72 adult female elk to individual summer-fall home ranges in northwestern Colorado, USA, during two consecutive summers (1996 and 1997). To compare elk summer-fall home-range overlap and distribution based on individual kernel-estimated utilization distributions, we calculated the volume-of-intersection statistic and the inter-annual distances between centers-of-mass. We found adult female elk in the White River Study area exhibited strong fidelity to individual home ranges. Volume-of-intersection results indicated that 93% of the elk showed explicit home-range overlap between 1996 and 1997, but that all the elk returned to the same vicinity as the previous year (median=0.42, SE=0.02, n=72). Between-year center-of-mass distances ranged from 183m to 34,170m (mean=3819, SE=619, n=72), while within-year maximum distances between location points ranged from 4320m to 31,680m (mean=13,958, SE=628, n=72). Hunting increased the distance traveled by individual elk, but did not change the center of their home-range. Understanding female elk home-range fidelity could influence forest management focused on aspen regeneration. Specifically, targeted removal of female elk from their summer-fall home ranges could create a ‘window of opportunity’ in which browsing pressure was reduced, and the likelihood of aspen recruitment increased.

The One-Humped Camel in Uganda

This paper provides the first comprehensive account of the presence of camels and of camel production in Uganda. Uganda is a poor East African landlocked country. Agriculture's contribution to GDP has shrunk by 23.5 per cent in the last 30 years whilst that of the service sector has increased. Commercial and food crops are the major subsectors of agriculture but livestock add almost 10 per cent to agricultural GDP. Goats are numerically the most important quadruped livestock, followed by cattle, sheep, pigs and donkeys: there are very few horses. The one-humped camel is not part of the traditional array of domestic livestock but the species started to appear in the arid northeast of the country during the 1960s/1970s. In 2008 the national camel population was about 31 000 but in 2017 may be as high as or more than 40 000. Traditional pastoral tribes have become camel keepers for the production of milk, some meat, some transport and for medical uses. Internal parasites and trypanosomes are a problem for camel health and welfare. Feed supplies in the area of camel keeping comprise many of the camel's preferred browse species. Although not a traditional species and few in number camels have the potential to contribute to food security and to the livelihoods of pastoralists in some of the remote parts of Uganda.

Foliar Nutritional Quality Explains Patchy Browsing Damage Caused by an Invasive Mammal.

Introduced herbivores frequently inflict significant, yet patchy damage on native ecosystems through selective browsing. However, there are few instances where the underlying cause of this patchy damage has been revealed. We aimed to determine if the nutritional quality of foliage could predict the browsing preferences of an invasive mammalian herbivore, the common brushtail possum (Trichosurus vulpecula), in a temperate forest in New Zealand. We quantified the spatial and temporal variation in four key aspects of the foliar chemistry (total nitrogen, available nitrogen, in vitro dry matter digestibility and tannin effect) of 275 trees representing five native tree species. Simultaneously, we assessed the severity of browsing damage caused by possums on those trees in order to relate selective browsing to foliar nutritional quality. We found significant spatial and temporal variation in nutritional quality among individuals of each tree species examined, as well as among tree species. There was a positive relationship between the available nitrogen concentration of foliage (a measure of in vitro digestible protein) and the severity of damage caused by browsing by possums. This study highlights the importance of nutritional quality, specifically, the foliar available nitrogen concentration of individual trees, in predicting the impact of an invasive mammal. Revealing the underlying cause of patchy browsing by an invasive mammal provides new insights for conservation of native forests and targeted control of invasive herbivores in forest ecosystems.

Research of Data-Aiming Mining Algorithm in Cloud Environment

Cloud computing contains a huge amount of data, which are featured as being widely distributed, heterogeneous, and dynamic. Thus, aiming at how to mine useful parts in these information, this paper proposes an Apriori algorithm based on cloud computing and introduces cost-sensitive learning and non-filter matrix to find k frequency set and uses the method of generating association rules to improve effectiveness of data mining. Simulation experiments show that mining algorithm in this paper is highly effective and suitable for data mining in the context of cloud computing. With the emergence of the concept cloud computing, more and more information is shared and spread through the Internet. How can carry out data mining in cloud computing became an important means of access to information (1). Literature (2) data mining solutions in the cloud computing environment is proposed, through the cloud computing and cloud computing services, describes the problem solving mechanism for data mining services. Literature (3) proposed a data processing method based on cloud computing, based on mining user browsing preference path. Experiments show that the mining algorithm for large amount of data logs, accuracy and efficiency than ordinary users preferred path mining algorithm based on frequency increased. Literature (4) proposed a new framework for data mining in the field of cloud platforms and cloud computing environments are described mechanism of data mining in the field of service-oriented. Literature (5) is a method of data mining based on cloud computing technology: large data sets and mining tasks on multiple computers in parallel, experiments show that use cloud computing technology to handle large data sets in a cluster, you can significantly improve the efficiency of data mining. Literature (6) for cloud computing resources prediction model based on data mining technology, results showed that this model not only improves the prediction accuracy of cloud computing resources, and reduce the complexity of modeling, improves the efficiency of models, to cloud computing resources provides a new way of building models. Literature (7) proposed data mining services view, cloud services task force has analyzed data mining advantages and challenges, data mining and prediction of cloud point data mining development trend of cloud services, providing data mining services framework for cloud services. This paper proposes an Apriori algorithm based on cloud computing and introduces cost-sensitive learning and non-filter matrix to find k

Diet and seasonal dispersal of extralimital giraffe at Sanbona Wildlife Reserve, Little Karoo, South Africa

South African giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis giraffa) have been introduced as an extralimital species to private farms in the Little Karoo on the basis of economic sustainability, and the need to create a competitive tourism product. However, little is known about the medium- to long-term impacts and ecological sustainability of such introductions. The diet of a population of giraffe on Sanbona Wildlife Reserve, near the town of Ladismith, was assessed via direct observations between January and October 2014, in order to determine their potential impact on the world’s most species-rich semi-desert, the Succulent Karoo. Unlike giraffe in their native range, the Sanbona population showed seasonal preference for browse species. Acacia karroo (sweet thorn) appears to be the preferred browse species during autumn and spring, with Schotia afra being the preferred species in winter, and no significant preference being shown in summer. Giraffe also appeared to seasonally move between catchments where tree species other than A. karroo occurs, especially during winter and spring when the tributaries of the Brak River, containing mixed Acacia with S. afra (karoo boer-bean) and Euclea undulata (small-leaved guarri), were visited with increasing frequency. These results largely confirm the importance of A. karroo as the main browse species in this environment but also suggest that other species may be important components of the diet of extralimital giraffe in the Little Karoo. On farms where A. karroo is dominant, supplementary feed may be needed when A. karroo browse is unavailable due to leaf drop.Conservation implications: Acacia karroo was the main browse species of extralimital G. c. giraffa at Sanbona Wildlife Reserve, but it switched to S. afra during winter. This suggests that an assessment of alternative food species forms part of suitability assessments for the introduction of extralimital G. c. giraffa for areas similar to Sanbona.

The legacy of deer overabundance: long-term delays in herbaceous understory recovery

Decades of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus (Zimmermann, 1780)) overpopulation have dramatically homogenized forests across much of the eastern United States, creating depauperate forest understory communities. The rate at which these communities recover once deer browsing has been reduced remains an open question. We evaluate overbrowsing legacy effects by examining how forest herbaceous layers respond in terms of biodiversity, density, and community composition over 11 years using exclosures and control plots within a mature beech–maple forest. Although little recovery occurred in the first 5 years, total density and preferred browse density rebounded substantially during the final years of the study. Although community composition began to diverge between exclosure and control plots after 5 years, diversity failed to recover even after 11 years of excluding browsers. Our findings show that vulnerable species can increase after excluding browsers but only if those species were initially present. Biodiversity recovery may be extremely slow because preferred browse species have been nearly extirpated from many forests and thus are unable to recruit into refugia. We empirically demonstrate the extent of the ghost of herbivory past or legacy effect of browsing, i.e., the substantial time delay between herbivore abatement and community response after decades of high deer densities.

Using eDNA to experimentally test ungulate browsing preferences.

Large herbivores may affect ecosystem processes and states, but such effects can be difficult to quantify, especially within multispecies assemblages. To better understand such processes and improve our predictive ability of systems undergoing change, herbivore diets can be studied using controlled feeding trials (or cafeteria tests). With some wildlife, such as large herbivores, it is impractical to empirically verify these findings, because it requires visually observing animals in forested environments, which can disturb them from their natural behaviors. Yet, in field-based cafeteria trials it is nearly impossible to differentiate selection between herbivore species that forage on similar plants and make very similar bite marks. However, during browsing ungulates leave saliva residue which includes some buccal cells and DNA that can be extracted for species identification. Here we used a newly developed eDNA-based method (biteDNA) to test the browsing preferences of four sympatric ungulate species in the wild. Overall, food preferences varied between species, but all species strongly preferred deciduous over coniferous species. Our method allows the study of plant-animal interactions in multispecies assemblages at very fine detail.

Significance of woody browse preferences in evaluating the impact of sika deer browsing on tree seedlings

The growing populations of sika deer (Cervus nippon yesoensis) in Hokkaido, Japan, are having increasingly negative impacts on forests. Although the percentage or frequency of browsed twigs and seedlings is a useful index of the impact of deer on forests, differences in the browse preferences of deer among tree species should also be considered. We evaluated the woody browse preferences of sika deer and examined a method for evaluating deer impacts based on the occurrence of browsing scars on seedlings, together with browse preferences. We also validated the percentages of browsed seedlings irrespective of browse preferences as an index of deer impact. We measured the heights of seedlings 30–200 cm tall in five 5 × 20 m plots located in Abies sachalinensis plantations in each of seven tracts and recorded browsing damage that occurred on leader shoots of seedlings. Browse species preference was evaluated using a generalized linear model (GLM) that included the seven tracts, species, and seedling height as explanatory variables. The results of the GLM suggest that differences in browse preferences among species are continuous and cannot be categorized discretely. The tract coefficients are considered to be an index of deer impact levels and can be estimated from the percentage of browsed seedlings for a species if the species coefficient is given. Simple percentages of browsed seedlings can also be used as an index of impact level, regardless of browse preferences, though these may be inaccurate, especially when the site is dominated by significantly preferred or avoided species.

Seed dispersal of an invasive shrub, Amur honeysuckle (Lonicera maackii), by white-tailed deer in a fragmented agricultural-forest matrix

Ungulates are potentially important seed dispersers for many invasive plant species. While our understanding of which invasive plant species are dispersed by ungulates has improved over the last decade, the factors influencing this process remain poorly understood. To address this, we explored white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) seed consumption and dispersal of an invasive shrub (Lonicera maackii) in fragmented agricultural-forest matrices in western Ohio. In a pairwise browse preference experiment, deer browsed at similar levels on branches of L. maackii with fruits removed and fruits intact (mean ± 95 % CI 57 ± 14 and 62 ± 14 %, respectively). We found no evidence that white-tailed deer disperse L. maackii seeds along an invasion front, but 31 % of deer pellet groups collected in an invaded area contained germinable L. maackii seeds (maximum number of germinable seeds = 30). By combining hourly movement data specific to fragmented landscapes and gut retention time data, we projected that female deer disperse 91 % of ingested seeds further than 100 m from seed sources (i.e., long-distance seed dispersal), and rarely disperse seeds up to 7.9 km. We conclude that white-tailed deer can be important long-distance seed dispersal vectors of L. maackii, and that invader abundance and/or patch connectivity likely influence patterns of seed dispersal by white-tailed deer.

Simultaneous influence of canopy decline and deer herbivory on regeneration in a conifer–broadleaf forest

Understanding how forests respond to multiple disturbances is becoming increasingly important under global change. We examined the simultaneous influence of canopy decline and deer browsing on regeneration in an old-growth reserve and surrounding managed forest dominated by Fagus sylvatica L. and Abies alba Mill. in Slovenia. We quantified both disturbance processes by measuring characteristics of canopy gaps and reconstructing historical deer densities. Forest response was assessed with repeated measurements of tree regeneration and regeneration patterns within deer exclosures. Most gaps were formed by mortality of A. alba (71%), and gapmaker characteristics suggest that gaps formed slowly and often expanded, resulting in a mosaic of openings covering 17% of the old-growth reserve. Fagus sylvatica dominated the regeneration layer throughout the reserve and recruited to taller height classes over the past 26 years. The recruitment failure of preferred browse species (A. alba and Acer pseudoplatanus L.) in the reserve and the successful recruitment of these species within exclosures indicate that selective browsing by deer has altered the successional response to A. alba decline, facilitating the dominance of F. sylvatica. Given that global change may increase forest decline worldwide and the ubiquitous nature of deer browsing in many temperate forests, understanding their combined effects on forests will become increasingly important.

Termitaria as preferred browsing patches for black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis) in Chipinge Safari Area, Zimbabwe

Abstract:This study tested the hypothesis that the black rhinoceros browses more on termitaria than off termitaria vegetation due to elevated soil and foliar nutrient levels on termitaria. We investigated the role of termitaria in providing nutrient-rich forage for the black rhinoceros, by comparing the preference (selection ratio) for vegetation occurring on and off termitaria, and then testing its relationship with foliar nutrient concentrations. Soil nutrients, bite intensity, tree species diversity, vegetation density, canopy cover and basal area were also surveyed on and off termitaria. We sampled 25 termite mounds together with their corresponding control plots in Chipinge Safari Area, Zimbabwe. Soil and foliar N, P, K, Ca and Na concentrations were greater on termitaria than off termitaria, with approximately twice the concentration of these nutrients. Browse preference followed the between-site differences in soil and foliar nutrient concentrations, with higher selection ratios and bite intensities for vegetation on termitaria than off termitaria. Diospyros quiloensis was the most preferred browse species whilst Combretum imberbe, Kigelia africana and Strychnos innocua were the least. In conclusion, the black rhino preferred vegetation on termitaria to that in the surrounding matrix, and utilization of vegetation can be influenced by the soil substrate on which tree species grow.

On the uniqueness of Web browsing history patterns

We present the results of the first large-scale study of the uniqueness of Web browsing histories, gathered from a total of 368,284 Internet users who visited a history detection demonstration website. Our results show that for a majority of users (69 %), the browsing history is unique and that users for whom we could detect at least four visited websites were uniquely identified by their histories in 97 % of cases. We observe a significant rate of stability in browser history fingerprints: for repeat visitors, 38 % of fingerprints are identical over time, and differing ones were correlated with original history contents, indicating static browsing preferences (for history subvectors of size 50). We report a striking result that it is enough to test for a small number of pages in order to both enumerate users’ interests and perform an efficient and unique behavioral fingerprint; we show that testing 50 Web pages is enough to fingerprint 42 % of users in our database, increasing to 70 % with 500 Web pages.

Ungulate herbivory of boreal and temperate forest regeneration in relation to seedling mineral nutrition and secondary metabolites

Fertilization at planting may improve reforestation productivity on sites frequented by ungulates by stimulating rapid growth above the browse line, allowing seedlings to escape animal damage. Additionally, stored nutrients may aid seedlings in recovery from browse damage. High plant nutrient content may, however, deem seedlings more susceptible to ungulate browsing because of increased foliar protein content and, thus, nutritional value. Research examining the relationship between fertilization of forest trees and ungulate herbivory has been conducted almost exclusively in boreal and temperate zones of North America and Europe, and has produced two common themes. The first is that nearly all trials used broadcast application of fertilizer. This method supplies nutrients to both the target species and competing vegetation, resulting in significant increases in nutritional value for all potential forage. The second common theme is that there is a higher likelihood of browse for fertilized plants. Exceptions to this thread exist, however, because browse preference of fertilized seedlings is apparently species-specific due to differences among species in resource allocation. Palatability appears to interact with the production of plant chemical defenses (i.e., alkaloids, phenylpropanoids, terpenoids). Variations in plant mineral nutrition and secondary metabolite production can play a significant role determining forage preference; however, ungulates under starvation or stress will browse plants of high toxicity or low nutritional value to maintain fitness.

Dry Season Browse Preference for the Black Rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis): The Case of the Midlands Black Rhino Conservancy (MBRC), Zimbabwe

Dry season browse preference for the black rhinoceros ( Diceros bicornis ) was studied at the Midlands Black Rhino Conservancy (MBRC), Zimbabwe, in 2010. Free ranging black rhinos were tracked and 8 687 individual bites were recorded at 131 feeding stations and 616 feeding points. Only 34 plant species accounted for the black rhino diet. Trees contributed much of the diet (52.9%) followed by shrubs (44.0%) and lastly herbs (7.3%), with most of the browse (68.7%) coming from the 1.0-1.5m height category. Early dry season diet was richer and more evenly distributed (34 species, H ' =3.812.) than late dry diet (27 species, H ' =3.413). Acacia nilotica, Acacia karoo, Dichrostachys cineria, Ziziphus mucronata, Lantana camara, Gardenia volkensii and Rhus tenuinervis constituted the principal diet of the rhino, contributing 69.4% and 81.6% of the browse in the early dry and late dry season respectively. In the early dry season L. camara was the most important principal species contributing 32.9% of the browse, scoring the highest proportional usage. (0.33) and was also the most available (0.26), a position that switched onto A nilotica in the late dry season. The restricted diet obtained in the study may encourage wandering of rhinos into unprotected neighbourhoods making them prone to poaching.

Effects of browsing by sika deer (Cervus nippon) on subalpine vegetation at Mt. Kita, central Japan

AbstractThe effects of browsing by sika deer (Cervus nippon) on subalpine vegetation (Betula forests and tall grasslands) were investigated in the South Alps National Park, Japan. The browsing ratio (the number of browsed quadrats to the number of quadrats occurring in each plot) was significantly higher in Betula forests than in grasslands. A significant negative correlation was found between the browsing ratio and some species diversity indices (number of species and the Shannon–Wiener diversity index) in the Betula forests, but not in grasslands. The frequency of occurrence and the number of preferred browse species were significantly higher in Betula forests than in grasslands. Browsing was not always the most serious on the most frequent vegetation. For example, Polemonium caeruleum L. subsp. yezoense var. nipponicum, which is listed as vulnerable on Japan's red list of threatened species and was low in occurrence in Betula forests compared to grasslands, was more browsed in Betula forests than in grasslands. Less frequently occurring species subjected to more browsing could easily disappear. The disappearance of such species would exert a strong effect on the species pool in the area.

Phytochemical variation within a single plant species influences foraging behavior of deer

To determine how black‐tailed deer Odocoileus hemionus columbianus respond to phytochemical cues while browsing in heterogeneous phytochemical environments, we offered captive and free‐range deer cloned rooted cuttings and seedlings of western redcedar Thuja plicata selected for varying monoterpene content. Black‐tailed deer were thus allowed to browse among a controlled array of phytochemical cues in a series of experiments designed to evaluate foraging behavior at fine (within plot) and coarse (plot selection) scales. Within‐plot diet selection experiments demonstrated that browse preference for individual western redcedar plants was a function of foliar monoterpene concentration. Individual plant palatability combined with momentary maximization foraging strategy promoted survival of heavily defended plants. Among‐plot foraging experiments demonstrated that coarse‐scale foraging preferences were strongly influenced by distributions of high monoterpene‐containing western redcedar in available plots. Olfaction may play a significant role in both fine and coarse‐scale browse behaviors of deer as they employ a risk‐averse foraging strategy.

Ungulate herbivory of regenerating conifers in relation to foliar nutrition and terpenoid production

Ungulate browsing greatly influences regeneration dynamics of some forest ecosystems, yet the relationship between browse susceptibility and foliar chemistry of forest tree seedlings is not well understood. We applied field fertilization (15N-9P-10K controlled-release fertilizer at 0, 20, 40, and 60 g per seedling) and investigated how subsequent changes in terpenoid production and foliar nutrition influence ungulate browse preference for Douglas-fir ( Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco), western hemlock ( Tsuga heterophylla Raf. Sarg.), and western redcedar ( Thuja plicata Donn ex D. Don) seedlings across four sites in northwestern Oregon, USA. Fertilization increased foliar N concentration of all three species, but above-ground growth of only Douglas-fir and western hemlock. Foliar monoterpene concentrations for western hemlock and western redcedar also increased at higher fertilization rates, while Douglas-fir monoterpene production was not affected by fertilization. Regardless of monoterpene levels, ungulate browse preference was greater for fertilized western hemlock seedlings. The opposite response, however, was observed for western redcedar at two of the four study sites where the likelihood of browse was greater for non-fertilized than fertilized seedlings. Differences in browse preference among species may depend on the type and amount of individual monoterpenes manufactured in response to fertilization. Western redcedar produce α- and β-thujone, oxygenated monoterpenes known to promote gastroenteritis and possibly inhibit microbial rumen activity, which were absent from Douglas-fir or western hemlock. Higher concentrations of α- and β-thujone associated with increasing fertilizer rate provide a plausible explanation as to why ungulates preferred non-fertilized western redcedar. Our results illustrate species-specific adaptation in browse avoidance and selective ungulate browsing behavior of individual trees as linked to foliar chemistry.

Mammalian herbivores reveal marked genetic divergence among populations of an endangered plant species

Quantitative genetically based traits in dominant and keystone tree species can have extended effects on other biota and also on ecosystem processes. This has direct implications for managed plant systems, where choice of genetic stock in conservation or commercial plantings will affect the ecological and evolutionary trajectory of the associated biotic communities. Hence an understanding of genetic variation in quantitative traits, especially those that relate directly to fitness, should be incorporated into the management of species. In plants, quantitative traits such as foliar defences that mediate the complexity of biotic interactions (e.g. herbivory), may be key fitness traits to consider in the management of gene pools of species that are of high conservation value. In this paper we examine the interactions of an endangered eucalypt species, Eucalyptus morrisbyi and a marsupial herbivore, the common brushtail possum Trichosurus vulpecula. We investigate the genetic variability of resistance of plants sourced from two populations and genetic variability in foliage defences as key quantitative traits that may be essential for survival of this eucalypt species. Trichosurus vulpecula detect clear genetic divergence in the two E. morrisbyi populations as evidenced by their browsing preferences in the field. In addition, trees from the more susceptible population (Calverts Hill) suffered fitness consequences with lower flowering than trees from the more resistant population (Risdon Hills). Field feeding preferences were confirmed in captive feeding trials arguing differences were due to foliar attributes consistent with the genetic‐based differences observed in key chemical and physical foliage traits. Biotic interactions such as herbivory may affect populations of rare plant species. Results of this study highlight the need to understand the degree of genetic differentiation of resistance to herbivores and in the quantitative traits mediating these interactions in species of high conservation value, as these traits affect the adaptive potential of populations.

The impacts of herbivory on vegetation in Moremi Game Reserve, Botswana: 1967–2001

Browsing and grazing pressure on vegetation in the Moremi Game Reserve in Botswana was analyzed using remotely sensed imagery comprising CORONA photographs of 1967 and Landsat TM and Landsat ETM imagery of 1989 and 1994 and 2001, respectively. Comparison of temporal variations in the spatial distributions of different vegetation types and changes in the abundance of selected wildlife species demonstrate a persistent decrease in capacity of the environment to support wild animals, due to increasing abundance of poorly preferred browse species and increasing scarcity of favored varieties. Given the long-term direction of change showing continued deterioration of habitat conditions and the limited prospects for reversal of this trend, it is apparent that there is immediate need to realign wildlife management strategies in ways that can enhance the sustainability of wildlife and the supporting environment.