Pre-existing Defence Research Articles

Nutshell Physicochemical Characteristics of Different Hazel Cultivars and Their Defensive Activity toward Curculio nucum (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Hazel (Corylus avellana) is easily attacked by Curculio nucum L. To better understand the physiological mechanisms underlying the different resistance of cultivars to C. nucum, we determined the insect-resistant compounds, plant hormones contents, and enzyme activities in the nutshells of three hazel cultivars (DW, B21, and MZ) before (preexisting defense) and after (induced defense) C. nucum chewing. The findings demonstrated that the resistance of three hazel cultivars to C. nucum differed significantly (p < 0.05): the damage rate of MZ with 17.57% was highest, followed by DW (11.23%), and then B21 (7.15%). The contents of insect-resistant compounds (total terpenoid, tannin, total phenol, flavonoids, cellulose, and lignin) varied with hazel cultivars, both before and after C. nucum chewing, except for cellulose and lignin before induction. The level of plant hormones and defense enzyme activities of hazelnut enhanced due to C. nucum induction. Pearson correlation results revealed that the hazelnut damage rate was significantly negatively correlated with jasmonic acid (JA) (R2 = 0.812), SOD (R2 = 0.671), salicylic acid (SA) (R2 = 0.878), and terpenoids (R2 = 0.774), and significantly positively correlated with flavonoids (R2 = 0.696), celluloses (R2 = 0.501), POD (R2 = 0.758), and abscisic acid (ABA) (R2 = 0.978). The hazelnut defense to C. nucum was negatively related to cellulose contents, and not to lignin contents, but was significantly positively related to the ratio of cellulose-to-lignin (R2 = 0.703). Our results suggested that the hazel against C. nucum attack responded by improving plant hormones contents and enzyme activities in the nutshells. A particular cellulose-to-lignin ratio provides the most effective physical structural defense properties in the nutshells.

면책 주장과 기판력 및 청구이의의 소

Once a judgment has been finalized on a cause of action, parties are precluded from raising pleadings in support of, or defense to avoid the cause of action, which have existed prior to the final judgment but have not been submitted during the litigation. In the same vein, debtor cannot bring up pre-existing defense to object the execution based on the final judgment(Civil Execution Code Article 44②). During the lawsuit brought by the creditor seeking for monetary payment of his/her claim, if the debtor has not raised the fact that he/she has already been discharged, could the debtor later file an objection suit against the execution claiming that he/she has been discharged? The Supreme Court allowed this in 2017Da286492 case.
 In order to offer strong protection to the debtor, the Supreme Court analogized discharge to qualified acceptance of inheritance, and took the same approach. Namely, the scope of liability is irrelevant to the cause of action, and unless it is raised by the parties during the litigation, it does not become a matter to be decided upon, and therefore bringing up the issue of discharge, which releases the debtor from liability, is not precluded by res judicata effect of the prior judgment. However, the Supreme Court case law regarding qualified acceptance of inheritance is inconsistent and does not conform with the jurisprudence in procedural rules. Such conclusion was inevitable in the case of qualified acceptance of inheritance, as it was necessary to protect the heir who had to inherit the decedent’s debt which he/she was unaware of and had no reasons attributable to. On the other hand, the rationale for the debtor is less compelling, since it was his/her debt which he/she was supposed to be liable with his/her entire asset, yet has been discharged due to special consideration. Also, the substantive and procedural treatment regarding discharge is quite different from that of the qualified acceptance of inheritance. Moreover, 2017Da286492 judgment forces the creditor to relitigate on the same issue just because the debtor did not submit discharge defense during the prior lawsuit.
 In order to maintain procedural fairness and legal certainty, in principle the debtor should not be allowed to bring up pre-existing discharge defense in order to file an objection suit against execution because it is precluded by the res judicata of the prior judgment. As for the exceptional cases in which the debtor needs to be protected, good faith principle could be applied and the special circumstances of the debtor should be considered as a factor.

Ferulic acid, an abundant maize phenolic, regulates ABC and MFS transporter gene expression in the maize pathogen Cochliobolus heterostrophus

Plant pathogens encounter pre-existing and induced defense compounds when they invade the host. Pathogen ATP-binding cassette (ABC) and major facilitator superfamily (MFS) transporters can provide protection during infection through efflux removal of plant defense compounds from the cell. In the current work, we identified a total of 973 transporter genes, including 232 MFS and 39 ABC transporters, in the genome of the southern corn leaf blight pathogen Cochliobolus heterostrophus. We compared these genes with a recently published transcriptomic data set from C. heterostrophus exposed to the phenolic maize defense compound ferulic acid (FA) and identified four transporter gene families that were significantly (P < 0.05) enriched among genes upregulated by FA, including MFS and ABC transporters, the mitochondrial carrier family and the fatty acid transporter family. Phylogenetic analyses further classified most FA-upregulated ABC transporters into subgroups G (pleiotropic drug resistance transporters), B (multi-drug resistance transporters) and C (multi-drug resistance-associated transporters). Out of the 74 MFS transporter genes induced by FA, 29 were classified as members of the 2.A.1.2 Drug:H + Antiporter-1 (DHA1) family. The results support the idea that efflux of plant defense compounds by drug resistance membrane transporters contributes to pathogen virulence. The provided MFS and ABC transporter classification should be readily extendable to other Dothideomycete pathogen genomes.

Обґрунтування пропозиції щодо впровадження системи оцінювання та розвитку спроможностей складових сил оборони: організаційний аспект

A key change in priorities during the transition from a pre-existing defense planning system to the implementation of capability-based planning with a better Euro-Atlantic standard should be the basis for the reform of the Defense Forces (DF). This raises the issue of enhancing the effectiveness of Capability-Based Defense Planning (CBDP), in particular through the introduction of Assessing and Developing Capability System (ADCS) and, consequently, the intensification of research in a particular area.The purpose of the article is to substantiate the proposal to implement the ADCS components of DF in the context of the implementation of the operational objective 2.3 of the Strategic Defense Bulletin of Ukraine considering the experience of NATO member states.ADCS is a comprehensive capability assessment system, ranking them in Functional Capability Groups (FCG), prioritizing capabilities in the DF component, developing financing proposals for their development, monitoring, implementing, and evaluating the implementation of capability development activities.The tasks of the ADCS, as part of the implementation of defense planning procedures:- ensuring capacity assessment;- approval of the results;- prioritizing capacity development within the FCG and across the FCG component of DF;- support the implementation of the decisions taken to develop the identified capabilities.Considering the tasks and the defined provisions, the process of functioning of the ADCS component of the DF should include the following basic procedures:- preparation and implementation of DF;- verification of DF summary documents;- reviewing and approving the final DF documents, determining priority proposals;- approval and financing of decisions;- supporting the implementation of the decisions taken on capacity development and evaluation of the implementation of measures.

PLANTS’ INNATE DEFENCE MECHANISMS AGAINST PHYTOPATHOGENS

Plants are affected by a number of severe conditions including damages caused by phytopathogens, which ultimately reduce productivity. Overtime, plants have evolved different mechanisms for defence against and resistance to invading pathogens, such as bacteria, viruses and fungi in different pathosystems. Defence mechanisms in plants could either be innate or artificial. Innate defence is said to occur when plants are naturally able to limit the development of a specific pathogen or the damage it may cause based on properties inherent in the plant without human intervention. This defence strategy could be divided into pre-existing and induced defence mechanisms. The pre-existing defence strategy comprises defence gardgets endogenously present in the plant even before pathogen colonization. It include the use of superficial structures (such as thick walled tissues, waxes and cuticle), biochemical substances (such as inhibitors released by plant into its environment) and defence through lack of essential factors (such as lack of host receptors and sensitive sites for toxins). The induced defence mechanism only becomes active in response to pathogen attack. It consists of defence through the formation of structures (such as cytoplasmic and cellular defence structures) and through biochemical reactions or the production of certain substances (such as pathogenesis related proteins and phenolics). Proper understanding of plant defence mechanisms against pathogens is important in developing new and improved disease resistant varieties.

Development of SSR markers linked to QTL reducing leaf hair density and grapevine downy mildew resistance in Vitis vinifera

Dense leaf hairs of grapevines have been known to act as a preexisting defense structure for preventing the incidence of grapevine downy mildew, because the pathogen, Plasmopara viticola, needs water to invade grapevines, and water is repelled by a hydrophobic surface due to dense leaf hairs. In the present study, we performed regression analyses of downy mildew resistance with leaf hair density using hybrids of Vitis labrusca origin and confirmed the effect of leaf hairs. Reducing the repelling effect of leaf hairs by detergent application canceled the effect of leaf hair, which confirmed the hypothesis. Thereafter, based on QTL analyses in the population of V. vinifera ‘Muscat of Alexandria’ × the interspecific hybrid ‘Campbell Early,’ we identified a major locus in linkage group (LG) 5 of ‘Muscat of Alexandria’ controlling leaf hair density. This locus was previously reported as a small effect QTL for downy mildew resistance, however we found that the locus had high LOD scores explaining 71.9%–78.5% of the phenotypic variance of leaf hairs. Moreover, this locus was detected as a QTL for downy mildew resistance. The effect of this locus was confirmed in two other hybrid populations. Finally, we could successfully identify three traditional V. vinifera table grapes ‘Muscat of Alexandria,’ ‘Katta Kurgan,’ and ‘Parkent’ as the origin of the allele linked to hairlessness by defining the SSR haplotypes. The use of this locus for marker-assisted selections would be a promising strategy for producing grapevines with resistance by preexisting defense structure.

Virus resistance genes in plants

Plants defend themselves from virus infection by RNA silencing and resistance (R) gene-mediated mechanisms. Many dominant R genes encode nucleotide-binding site and leucine-rich repeat (NB-LRR)-containing proteins. NB-LRR proteins are also encoded by R genes against bacteria or fungi, suggesting a similar mechanism underlies defense systems to diverse pathogens. In contrast, several non-NB-LRR-type R genes have recently been cloned, each of which differs from others in sequences and functions. In this review, we introduce a diversity of R gene-mediated plant defense systems against viruses. Tm-1, JAX1, and Scmv1, resistance genes against tomato mosaic virus, potexviruses, and sugarcane mosaic virus, respectively, inhibit virus multiplication at a single cell level. The RTM1, RTM2, RTM3 genes of Arabidopsis thaliana inhibit systemic transport of potyviruses through the phloem. STV11 of rice against rice stripe virus and Ty-1 and Ty-3 genes of tomato against tomato yellow leaf curl virus allow low level virus multiplication and confer tolerance. The wide diversity of plant defense systems against viruses implies their recent emergence. We suggest that plants evolved new defense systems to counter infection by viruses that had overcome pre-existing defense systems (RNA silencing and NB-LRR-type R gene-mediated systems).

Phage Display Technique: A Novel Medicinal Approach to Overcome An tibiotic Resistance by Using Peptide-Based Inhibitors Against β-Lactamases.

The emergence of antibiotic resistance in bacteria is a serious threat with enormous social and economic implications. The distribution of resistance genes/markers through horizontal gene transfer leads to the dissemination of resistant strains in different parts of the world. The resistant bacteria acquire the ability to overcome resistance by different modes amongst which the expression of β-lactamases is a major factor. The β-lactamase enzymes cleave the amide bond of the β-lactam antibiotics, which constitute about one-third of the antibiotics used all over the world. In a quest to control the spread of resistant bacteria, advanced generations of antibiotics are used either alone or in combination with inhibitors. However, these antibiotics and inhibitors also contain β-lactam ring in their structure and hence are prone to be hydrolyzed by β-lactamase enzymes in the near future. Thus, the severity of the problem is manifested due to the paucity of novel non-β-lactam core containing antibiotics in the drug development stage. One approach to overcome these shortcomings is to use peptide-based inhibitors. Here, we describe the potential use of phage display technique to screen commercially available libraries to pan against β-lactamase enzymes. The main advantage of using peptide-based inhibitors is that the bacteria will not be able to recruit pre-existing defense mechanisms and it will take a long time to evolve a new mechanism in its defense against peptide-based inhibitors.

O urbanizmu Osora nakon 1450. godine

Obnova jadranskih gradova pod mletačkom vlašću obuhvatila je i sva centralna urbana naselja na Kvarnerskim otocima. Krajem 15. i tijekom 16. stoljeća Cres je dobio novi prsten zidina, kneževu palaču, gradsku ložu, gradski toranj sa satom nad lučkim vratima, fontik, zbornu crkvu te se proširio na područje srednjovjekovnog burga. Redizajn Krka provodio je mletački providur Vinciguerra krajem 15. stoljeća, a opsežni graditeljski pothvati zahvatili su i Rab. Osor, antička metropola Cresko-lošinjske otočne skupine, u tom se razdoblju radikalno smanjuje. Sredinom naselja, koje je od prapovijesti zauzimalo cjelokupnu površinu niske prevlake smještene između otoka Cresa i Lošinja, podignut je novi potez bedema kojim je grad prepolovljen. Istočna polovica naselja, u kojoj je smješten ranokršćanski katedralni kompleks, ostala je izvan bede-ma. Istočni bedem vremenom se urušava i razgrađuje, katedrala se reducira na središnji brod jedne od bazilika, a gradsko tkivo nestaje.

O urbanizmu Osora nakon 1450. godine

O urbanizmu Osora nakon 1450. godine

Comparative analysis of gene expression under cold acclimation, deacclimation and reacclimation in Arabidopsis

Cold acclimated plants show an elevated tolerance against subsequent cold stress. Such adaptation requires alterations in gene expression as well as physiological changes. We were interested in gene expression changes at the transcriptional level during adaptation processes. The patterns of transcriptional changes associated with cold acclimation, deacclimation and reacclimation in Arabidopsis leaves were characterized using the Coldstresschip. Gene expression profiles were further analyzed by 'coexpressed gene sets' using gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA). Genes involved in signal transduction through calcium, and cascades of kinases and transcription factor genes, were distinctively induced in the early response of cold acclimation. On the other hand, genes involved in antioxidation, cell wall biogenesis and sterol synthesis were upregulated in the late response of cold acclimation. After the removal of cold, the expression patterns of most genes rapidly returned to the original states. However, photosynthetic light-harvesting complex genes and lipid metabolism-related genes stayed upregulated in cold deacclimated plants compared to non-treated plants. It is also notable that many well-known cold-inducible genes are slightly induced in reacclimation and their expression remains at relatively low levels in cold reacclimation compared to the expression during the first cold acclimation. The results in this study show the dynamic nature of gene expression occurring during cold acclimation, deacclimation and reacclimation. Our results suggest that there is a memory of cold stress and that the 'memory of cold stress' is possibly due to elevated photosynthetic efficiency, modified lipid metabolism, increased calcium signaling, pre-existing defense protein made during first cold acclimation and/or modified signal transduction from pre-existing defense protein.

Effect of beta-aminobutyric acid (BABA) on enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants of Brassica napus L.under drought stress

Water stress is one of the most important environmental factors that affect plant growth and development, and limit plant production. Many regions in Iran suffer from water deficit. To overcome these limitations for improving crop yield, it is important to increase stress tolerance of crops, such as Brassica napus L. The broad spectrum protective effect of the non-protein amino acid β-aminobutyric acid (BABA) against numerous plant stresses has been well-documented in the literature. This research shows a possibility to increase plant tolerance for drought stress through effective priming of the preexisting defense pathways in rapeseed plant. Pretreatment of plants with BABA increased ascorbate, anthocyanin and flavonoid content, while decreased DHA content in water stress plants. Calcium content was significantly increased in BABA treated plants. In drought stress condition, activity of SOD, APX and POD were elevated over the controls, while CAT activity decreased. In plants which pretreated with BABA and then exposed to drought stress the activity of mentioned enzymes increased.

On the move: induced resistance in monocots

Although plants possess an arsenal of constitutive defences such as structural barriers and preformed antimicrobial defences, many attackers are able to overcome the pre-existing defence layers. In response, a range of inducible plant defences is set up to battle these pathogens. These mechanisms, commonly integrated as induced resistance (IR), control pathogens and pests by the activation of specific defence pathways. IR mechanisms have been extensively studied in the Dicotyledoneae, whereas knowledge of IR in monocotyledonous plants, including the globally important graminaceous crop plants, is elusive. Considering the potential of IR for sustainable agriculture and the recent advances in monocot genomics and biotechnology, IR in monocots is an emerging research field. In the following, current facts and trends concerning basal immunity, and systemic acquired/induced systemic resistance in the defence of monocots against pathogens and herbivores will be summarized.

β-Aminobutyric acid increases abscisic acid accumulation and desiccation tolerance and decreases water use but fails to improve grain yield in two spring wheat cultivars under soil drying.

A pot experiment was conducted to investigate the effect of the non-protein amino acid, β-aminobutyric acid (BABA), on the homeostasis between reactive oxygen species (ROS) and antioxidant defence during progressive soil drying, and its relationship with the accumulation of abscisic acid (ABA), water use, grain yield, and desiccation tolerance in two spring wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) cultivars released in different decades and with different yields under drought. Drenching the soil with 100 µM BABA increased drought-induced ABA production, leading to a decrease in the lethal leaf water potential (Ψ) used to measure desiccation tolerance, decreased water use, and increased water use efficiency for grain (WUEG) under moderate water stress. In addition, at severe water stress levels, drenching the soil with BABA reduced ROS production, increased antioxidant enzyme activity, and reduced the oxidative damage to lipid membranes. The data suggest that the addition of BABA triggers ABA accumulation that acts as a non-hydraulic root signal, thereby closing stomata, and reducing water use at moderate stress levels, and also reduces the production of ROS and increases the antioxidant defence enzymes at severe stress levels, thus increasing the desiccation tolerance. However, BABA treatment had no effect on grain yield of wheat when water availability was limited. The results suggest that there are ways of effectively priming the pre-existing defence pathways, in addition to genetic means, to improve the desiccation tolerance and WUEG of wheat.

Enhanced resistance and neutralization of defense responses by suppressors of RNA silencing

The effects of transgenic expression of the potato virus Y (PVY) HCPro silencing suppressor in tobacco were examined on infection by several viruses. Infection by tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) was reduced at 25 °C, but not at 33 °C. By contrast, systemic infection at 33 °C by the TMV expressing green fluorescent protein was promoted by the HCPro. Infection by tobacco rattle virus (TRV) was restricted to local necrotic lesions by the PVY HCPro. However, this resistance was neutralized by expression of the cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) 2b protein from TRV. By contrast, infection by either wild-type CMV or CMV with a deletion of the 2b gene was not affected. Similarly, infection by cauliflower mosaic virus, red clover necrotic mosaic virus (both limited to infection of the inoculated leaves of tobacco) or tomato bushy stunt virus (systemically infecting tobacco) was not altered by the expression of PVY HCPro. Therefore, it appeared that the PVY HCPro was able to induce defense responses at 25 °C, but not at 33 °C, where it actually neutralized a pre-existing defense response. Moreover, the CMV 2b protein was able to neutralize a defense response activated by HCPro in combination with TRV.

Legal theory and case law defining the insanity defence in English and Welsh law

The insanity defence has long been the focus of controversy and academic study. It impinges on a number of subjects and areas of expertise including psychiatry, law, ethics, and morality. The origins of the defence go back centuries both in statute law and case law. The crystallization of the defence occurred in the seminal M'Naghten's case (1843). From there the eponymous M'Naghten rules were exported and modified in various jurisdictions around the world. However, the focus of this short paper is on the history and meaning of the defence as it currently applies in English and Welsh law. An account of legal theory forming the foundation to the defence is provided. Historical case law pre-M'Naghten and post- M'Naghten is explained with particular emphasis on the meanings attached to the four elements making up the defence. The bulk of the material relates to the statutory insanity defence available for trials on indictment at the Crown court. However, there is also a pre-existing and ancient common law insanity defence available for cases in summary trial at the magistrates court. This latter defence is briefly reviewed towards the end of the paper.

Enhancing Arabidopsis Salt and Drought Stress Tolerance by Chemical Priming for Its Abscisic Acid Responses

Drought and salt stress tolerance of Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) plants increased following treatment with the nonprotein amino acid beta-aminobutyric acid (BABA), known as an inducer of resistance against infection of plants by numerous pathogens. BABA-pretreated plants showed earlier and higher expression of the salicylic acid-dependent PR-1 and PR-5 and the abscisic acid (ABA)-dependent RAB-18 and RD-29A genes following salt and drought stress. However, non-expressor of pathogenesis-related genes 1 and constitutive expressor of pathogenesis-related genes 1 mutants as well as transgenic NahG plants, all affected in the salicylic acid signal transduction pathway, still showed increased salt and drought tolerance after BABA treatment. On the contrary, the ABA deficient 1 and ABA insensitive 4 mutants, both impaired in the ABA-signaling pathway, could not be protected by BABA application. Our data demonstrate that BABA-induced water stress tolerance is based on enhanced ABA accumulation resulting in accelerated stress gene expression and stomatal closure. Here, we show a possibility to increase plant tolerance for these abiotic stresses through effective priming of the preexisting defense pathways without resorting to genetic alterations.