Predynastic Research Articles

Pan-Africanism

This essaic-article goes against established conventions that there is anything ethno-cultural (and hence national) about the so-called African tribes. Drawing largely from the culture history of precolonial/prepolitical Africans—that is, the Bantu/Cushitic-Ethiopians (Azanians)—the author has demonstrated vividly that far from being distinct ethno-culture national communities, the so-called tribes of African states are better considered subculture groups, whose regional culture practices erstwhile paid tribute to their nation’s main culture center in Karnak. For example, using the culture symbols and practices of some local groups and linking them to the predynastic and dynastic Pharaonic periods, I argued that there is compelling evidence against qualifying Africa’s tribes as distinct ethno-culture national entities. In genuine culture context, I stressed that the Ritual of Resurrection and its twin culture process of the mummification of deceased indigenous Pharaohs tend to suggest that the object of the Bantu/Cushitic-Ethiopians national culture was life (in its eternal manifestation) and then resurrection later, and that there are recurring (culturally sanctioned) ethical examples among the culture custodians of these subculture groups that generally pay tribute to the overarching culture norm. Furthermore, the fact that the Ritual of Resurrection began in the Delta region and ended at the Sources of the Nile, where the spirit of the deceased indigenous Pharaohs was introduced into the spiritual world of their ancestors, contradicts conventional perceptions that ancient Egypt was a distinct national community isolated from precolonial/prepolitical Africa/Azania.

Evaluation of Cultivated and Wild Plant Macroremains from a Predynastic Temple in Hierakonpolis - Upper Egypt

Hierakonpolis archaeological site was a Predynastic occupation (3800 -3500 B.C.) where the early Egyptian civilization originated. The research aims to discover the cultivated cropsin this remote time to recognize life activities of early Egyptians, reconstruct weeds assemblage grow within these crops, also wild plants give us a lot of information about climate and environment prevailed in this time. To reach this aim, soil samples w ere collected from Predynastic temple area.The samples were sieved and examined under the binocular objective using fine brush and needles and the plant remains were analyzed. Wood and charcoal of native trees were predominant. Cereal refuses, rhizomes, culm fragments, leaves, floral heads were mixed with mud to plaster floor and walls of the temple.Wood of native tall trees like Acacia nilotica,Tamarix aphylla, Tamarix niloticaand Balanites aegyptiacacould have been used for building purposes inside the temple. Comparison and integration of our data with previous archaeobotanical informations from Hierakonpolis, Adaima and El Kab increase our knowledge about habitats and past vegetation of Upper Egypt during Predynastic period. Also agriculture

The earliest representations of royal power in Egypt: the rock drawings of Nag el-Hamdulab (Aswan)

The vivid engravings on vertical rocks at the desert site of Nag el-Hamdulab west of the Nile comprise a rock art gallery of exceptional historical significance. The authors show that the images of boats with attendant prisoners, animals and the earliest representation of a pharaoh offer a window on Dynasty 0, and depict the moment that the religious procession of pre-Dynastic Egypt became the triumphant tour of a tax-collecting monarch.

Size Matters – Donkeys and Horses in the Prehistory of the Southernmost Levant

The present article is an attempt to clarify the taxonomy and domestic status of equids in the southernmost Levant during the Late Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age within the wider context of the Middle East and Egypt during the late fifth, fourth and third millennia B. C. Comparisons of the size of equid bones from sites in this area with that of wild asses and domestic donkeys from Predynastic Egypt and the Uruk period in Mesopotamia indicate the presence of domestic donkeys in the southernmost Levant in both periods. The donkeys of the Early Bronze Age were much smaller than those of the Late Chalcolithic.

Small Space, Big Ideas: The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology

The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, UCL, displays material from the pre-dynastic period of Egypt, from all periods through the Old, Middle and New Kingdoms – as well as from Ptolemaic, Roman, Coptic and Islamic Egypt. This range illustrates the diversity of antiquity in the Eastern Mediterranean and down the Nile Valley into Africa. The refurbishment of the museum last summer has enabled us to use the main gallery much more for teaching (Fig. 1), because we now have a seminar space, as well as being able to seat more people in the museum for our public events. After a short closure, we reopened in September 2010, since when our visitor numbers have increased by around 60% – and there have been more public events, book launches, meetings, seminars and discussions than ever before. We struggle to meet the demand for use of our space and juggle the needs of researchers. The Petrie Museum is, despite the size and range of its collections, a small museum in terms of space and resources. My job as Audience Development Officer at the museum is to raise its profile (both within the University and externally), increase its usage, expand audiences and run engaging learning activities. There has been a regular public programme at the museum since 2007, and interest in the talks, films and trails we put on has increased. One of the good things about being a ‘smaller’ university museum is the freedom to experiment with activities and articulate differing ideas about the ancient world, cultural heritage and Egypt. Another great aspect is the access we have to people and cutting edge research. Recently, I invited some PhD students from the Institute of Archaeology to give talks at the Petrie as part of our public programme. The newly refurbished space can comfortably seat about 40 and is intimate enough for there to be a good discussion afterwards (rather than just having a typical Q & A session). The museum is a perfect conduit for public engagement in a relatively informal environment. I have found that people are particularly appreciative of hearing about new research from postgraduates and, apart from fitting into the ‘impact’ agenda, it provides an excellent experience for the researchers delivering the talks.

Mid-Holocene occupation of Egypt and global climatic change

Occupation of the Egyptian Western Desert during the Holocene is linked with the summer monsoon, the position and intensity of the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) and the use of internal lakes and playas fed by summer rain. In contrast, such correlations are absent for the Fayum region of Egypt where occupation instead correlates with mid-Holocene increases in intensity of Mediterranean winter rainfall. Lake Qarun in the Fayum was the only lake where Near Eastern plant domesticates were used during the early-mid-Holocene period. Analysis of radiocarbon determinations is presented which suggests that, unlike later agriculture in the Nile Valley, early use of domesticates in the Fayum involved a dependence on winter rains for cereal cultivation following the Mediterranean growth seasons. It is proposed that the switch to a winter growing season after summer inundation occurred later, probably as part of key socio-economic changes during the Egyptian Predynastic period.

Multiple bone tuberculosis in a child from predynastic Upper Egypt (3200 BC)

AbstractTuberculosis, one of the most ancient human diseases, was present in ancient Egypt and has been observed since predynastic times. Excavations in the predynastic to early dynastic necropolis of Adaima, Upper Egypt (3500–2700 BC) led to the discovery of a number of remarkably well‐preserved skeletons of children. The skeletal remains of a 4.5–5‐year‐old child dated from Nagada III A2 (3200–3100 BC) displayed various lesions on the post‐cranial skeleton: spondylitis on the thoracic (T12) and lumbar (L1) vertebrae, partial lytic destruction of the right radio‐ulnar joint, lytic lesions on the scapula and a clavicle, dactylitis on the short bones of hands and feet, enlargement (spina ventosa) and periosteal new bone formation on the long bones. Radiographs show well‐defined radiolucent (cyst‐like) lesions in the metaphysis and the diaphysis of long tubular bones (ulna, radius, femur, tibia, fibula). The lesions recorded during macroscopic and radiological analysis strongly suggest a case of multiple bone tuberculosis. The occurrence of this case of tuberculosis in a child provides a picture of a period where tuberculosis must have been endemic throughout the population living during the origins of urban settlement in Upper Egypt during the predynastic period. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Alexandria's Eastern Harbor, Egypt: Pollen, Microscopic Charcoal, and the Transition from Natural to Human-Modified Basin

STANLEY, J.-D. and BERNHARDT, C.E., 2010. Alexandria’s Eastern Harbor, Egypt: Pollen, microscopic charcoal, and the transition from natural to human-modified basin. Journal of Coastal Research, 26(1), 67–79. West Palm Beach (Florida), ISSN 0749-0208. Pollen and microscopic charcoal examined in Holocene sediment core samples record major environmental modifications affecting Alexandria’s Eastern Harbor through time. We assess whether such changes on Egypt’s coastal margin were influenced primarily by natural, or natural plus human, or primarily human factors. We focus on (1) the times when pollen assemblages and microscopic charcoal content changed in the core, (2) how they changed, and (3) why this occurred. The analysis takes into account the core’s stratigraphy, regional climate variability, human history, and local archaeological record. Four pollen–microscopic charcoal zones are identified. The earliest change occurred at ca. 6000 YBP, during Egypt’s earlier Predynastic (Neolithic) period, coinciding with a lithologic break from sand to muddy sand. Pollen during this time indicates a transition to a much drier climate rather than effects of human activity. The second change in pollen occurred 3600–2900 YBP, during a period of continued aridity with no lithologic variation in this core interval. Pollen (cereal taxa, agricultural weeds, grape) and a sharp increase in microscopic charcoal indicate that human activity became prevalent at least 700 y before Alexander the Great’s arrival in this region, and these results highlight the transition from a largely natural climate–controlled environment to one influenced by both climate and anthropogenic activity. The third shift up-core in pollen assemblages is dated at ca. 2300 YBP, at the boundary between a sand and mud unit. It coincides with construction by the Ptolemies of the Heptastadion between Alexandria and Pharos Island. From this time onward, harbor sediment in the nearly enclosed catchment basin indicates a near-continuous record of dominant proximal human activity.

Identification of a chrysocolla amulet in an Early Dynastic child mummy

Two pyriform formations were identified within a bundle of linen bandages wrapping a 15–18 months old Early Dynastic mummy. The upper one was taken out of the bandages and examined to ascertain its nature. This formation showed to be a small bag closed by a knot containing an emerald-green mineral. For identification and with the aim of identifying the compound kept inside it, several different green minerals used for adornment in Ancient Egypt (from the Pre-dynastic period up to the Ptolemaic one) were examined by scanning electron microscope (SEM-EDX) followed by microanalysis. The pyriform formation's content is consistent, based on morphological and micro-analytical data, with the natural cryptocrystalline hydrated copper silicate identified as a bead of chrysocolla. The use of chrysocolla was less common than that of malachite as chrysocolla ores were rarer. To present days, only one other example of chrysocolla as a funerary equipment from an Ancient Egypt child burial can be traced. Since our archaeological finding indicates the presence of a chrysocolla bead in one other infant burial, it is possible that the use of this particular mineral was limited, in the Early Dynastic Period as a protective amulet for children.

Temporal Variation in Phenetic Affinity of Early Upper Egyptian Male Cranial Series

We carried out an exploratory historical biology study using temporally distinguished groups of predynastic–Early Dynastic male crania from the region of Upper Egypt. The objectives were, first, to determine the overall pattern of phenetic affinity between temporally sequential series and in relation to the earliest series and, second, to explore the possible meanings of the pattern of relationship to sociohistorical change. The cranial series were designated early predynastic, late predynastic, terminal predynastic, and Dynasty I. Craniometric phenetic affinity was ascertained using Mahalanobis distances; a 5% level of probability was chosen for significance. The distance matrix values were ordered into hierarchies of dissimilarity from each series (distance hierarchies) and tabulated for time-successive groups, including the temporally earliest series (i.e., serialized by time). The principal observations were as follows. The overall pattern was not one in which the values between all series were statistically insignificant; nor was it one of consistent sequential increase of biological distance from the earliest series. There was a notable and statistically significant distance between the early and late predynastic groups, with the late and terminal predynastic groups mutually having the lowest and statistically insignificant distances with each other. The value between the terminal predynastic and Dynasty I series was generally larger than the values between other groups and was statistically significant. The overall pattern is possibly consistent with archeological interpretations that postulate increasing intraregional interactions during the late and terminal predynastic periods and the rise of an Egyptian state that eventually included northern Egypt.

Temporal Variation in Phenetic Affinity of Early Upper Egyptian Male Cranial Series

We carried out an exploratory historical biology study using temporally distinguished groups of predynastic-Early Dynastic male crania from the region of Upper Egypt. The objectives were, first, to determine the overall pattern of phenetic affinity between temporally sequential series and in relation to the earliest series and, second, to explore the possible meanings of the pattern of relationship to sociohistorical change. The cranial series were designated early predynastic, late predynastic, terminal predynastic, and Dynasty I. Craniometric phenetic affinity was ascertained using Mahalanobis distances; a 5% level of probability was chosen for significance. The distance matrix values were ordered into hierarchies of dissimilarity from each series (distance hierarchies) and tabulated for time-successive groups, including the temporally earliest series (i.e., serialized by time). The principal observations were as follows. The overall pattern was not one in which the values between all series were statistically insignificant; nor was it one of consistent sequential increase of biological distance from the earliest series. There was a notable and statistically significant distance between the early and late predynastic groups, with the late and terminal predynastic groups mutually having the lowest and statistically insignificant distances with each other. The value between the terminal predynastic and Dynasty I series was generally larger than the values between other groups and was statistically significant. The overall pattern is possibly consistent with archeological interpretations that postulate increasing intraregional interactions during the late and terminal predynastic periods and the rise of an Egyptian state that eventually included northern Egypt.

Repatriating prehistoric artefacts to Egypt: Fekri Hassan’s Naqada and Siwa study collections

Between 1975 and 1981 Professor Fekri Hassan worked in the Western Desert and Naqada Region of Egypt, investigating numerous sites. During these projects he collected some of the most important study collections relating to the Egyptian Palaeolithic, Epipalaeolithic and Predynastic periods. The authors describe how this material arrived in UCL stores, the process of repatriating it back to Egypt and the Institute of Archaeology’s collections policy.

The Thebes-Armant Region during the Predynastic (Naqada) Period in Egypt

The Thebes-Armant Region during the Predynastic (Naqada) Period in Egypt

Predynastic human presence discovered by core drilling at the northern Nile delta coast, Egypt

A small but significant find made during a geological survey provides evidence of the oldest human presence yet discovered along the northernmost margin of Egypt9s Nile delta. A manuport, a rock fragment carried by human agency to the site, was discovered in a sediment core section north of Burullus lagoon near the Mediterranean coast. Accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) radiocarbon analysis of plant-rich matter in the mud surrounding the object provides a date calibrated to 3350–3020 B.C., the late Predynastic period. This long thin manuport, formed of dolomite, had not been deposited by the Nile or the sea but was collected and transported from an outcrop exposure positioned at least 160 km south of the core site. The fragile manuport, used for an undetermined function, lay buried at a depth of 7.4 m in dark olive gray mud deposited in a shallow brackish lagoon setting close to a marsh. This fortuitous find documents an early human presence in the middle Holocene wetlands along the delta9s paleocoast, a sector where traditional excavation and augering are normally incapable of reaching occupation levels or zones of activity at considerable subsurface depths. Core drilling provides a means to help archaeologists locate undetected and potentially important sites.

Sport in ancient times

Crowther offers a fascinating look at the role of sport as practiced in several important civilizations in the ancient world. He not only probes the games themselves, but explores the ways in which athletics figured into cultural arenas that extended beyond physical prowess to military associations, rituals, status, and politics. Sport in Ancient Times has four distinct parts: the Prehistoric Age, historic Greece, ancient Italy, and the Byzantine Empire. Beginning with the earliest civilizations, Crowther examines the military and recreational aspects of sports in prehistoric Egypt, with brief references to other river-valley cultures in Sumeria, Mesopotamia, and Persia. He looks at the rituals of Cretan bull-leaping and boxing in the Bronze Age, the high status of sports in Mycenaean Greece, and the funeral games in the Trojan War as described by the epic poet Homer. In what he terms the historic period, Crowther examines the significance of the ancient Olympic Games, the events of Greek athletics, and the attitude of other civilizations (notably Rome) towards them. He attempts to discover to what extent the Romans believed in the famous ideal of Juvenal, a sound mind in a sound body, and discusses the significance of the famous Baths not only for sport, but also for culture and society. He likewise explores the Roman emphasis on spectator sports and the use of gladiatorial contests and chariot racing for political purposes (the concept of bread and games). The section on the Byzantine Empire focuses, notably, on chariot racing and the riots at sporting contests-riots reminiscent of crowd violence in modern sports such as soccer. Crowther closes with perspectives that bring to life some of the issues revealed in previous chapters. These include a comparison of the social status and significance of a famous Olympic athlete (Milo), a Roman gladiator (Hermes), and a Byzantine chariot racer (Porphyrius). He also addresses the changing role of women in sports in antiquity. Women were prominent in sport in Egypt, for example, but almost entirely absent from the ancient Olympic Games. The final chapter discusses team sports and ball games. Although these were comparatively rare in the ancient world, one may see in those that did exist the forerunners of modern football and hockey.

A global history of architecture

Preface. Color Portfolio. Introduction. 3500 BCE. Beginnings of China's Civilization. Early Indus Settlements. Predynastic Egypt. Mesopotamia. European Megalithic Tombs. 2500 BCE. Indus Ghaggar-Hakra Civilization. Early Empires of Mesopotamia. Egypt: The Old Kingdom. Megalithic Temples of Malta. Stonehenge. First Civilizations of the Americas. 1500 BCE. Egypt: The New Kingdom. Hittite Empire. Minoan Civilization. Mycenaean Civilization. Civilization of the High Andes. Poverty Point. Shang Dynasty China. 800 BCE. The Olmecs. Chavin de Huantar. Zhou Dynasty China. Varanasi: The Aryan Conquest. Etruscan Civilization. Greece: The Geometric Period. Temple of Solomon. Kingdom of Kush. Neo-Assyrian Empire. 400 BCE. Achaemenid Dynasty. Classical Greece. Early Hellenic Age. Advent of Bhuddism. China: The Warring States Period. Late Olmec Centers. 0. Republican Rome. Augustan Rome. Post-Augustan Rome. Imperial Rome. Mahayana Buddhism. Taxila: The Gandharan Cosmopolis. Qin Dynasty China. Shaft Tombs of Teuchitl n. 200 CE. Roman Empire. Zoroastrian Fire Temples. Buddhism of the Satvahanas. The Kushan. Han China. The Moche and Nazca Civilizations. Teotihuacan. Ohio's Hopewell Mounds. 400 CE. Hindu Renaissance. Kushans of Bamiyan. Establishment of Chinese Buddhism. Emergence of Christianity. Post-Constantinian Age. Zapotecs of Oaxaca. Kofun Period: Japan. 600 CE. Maya of the Yucatan. Tiwanaku. Age of Justinian. Armenian Architecture. Ries of the Temple Kingdoms. The Sui and Tang Dynasties. Nara Period: Japan. 800 CE. Chang'an, the Tang Capitol. Korean Buddhism. South Asian Hindu-Buddhism. Indonesia at a Crossroads. Hindu Kingdoms of Cambodia. Construction in Southeast Asia. Rise of Islam. Carolingian Empire. Byzantine Empire. Pueblo Bonito. Maya City-States. 1000. Rise of Rajput Kingdoms. Song Dynasty China. Pure-Land Buddhism. Seljuk Turks. The Fatimids. Almoravid Dynasty. Byzantine Revival. Ottonian Germany. The Normans. Pilgrimage Churches. Italian City-States. Medieval Scandanavia. Kievan Russia. Mayan Uxmal. Native Americans of Cahokia. 1200. Khmer Vrah Vishnulok. Kingdom of Pagan. Kamakura Japan. Southern Song Dynasty. Delhi Sultanate. The Hoysalas. African Kingdoms. Europe: The High Middle Ages. Republic of Novgorod. Nasrid Sultanate. Toltec Empire. 1400. The Mexica: Tenochtitlan. Nomadic Invaders. Ming Dynasty China. Joseon Dynasty. Muromachi Japan. Timurid Dynasty. The Deccan Sultanates. Ottoman Empire. Mamluk Sultanate. Republic of Venice. Italian Renaissance. French Chateaux. 1600. Tokugawa Shogunate. Voyages of Zheng He. The Mughals. Spanish Conquest of America. Italian High Renaissance. Place Royale. Elizabethan England. The Kremlin?s New Churches. Baroque Italy. The Dogons of Mali. Architecture of the Eurasian Power Bloc. 1700. Colonialism. The French Culture of Empire. England: House of Stuart. Spread of the Baroque. Georgian Architecture. Qing Dynasty China. Edo and The Kyoto Odoi. Choson Dynasty. Nayaks of Madurai. The Mallas of Nepal. End of the Mughals. 1800. Qianlong Emperor. Neo-Classicism. Japan: The Edo Period. Romantic Nationalism. Shakers. Greek Revival. Synagogues. Viollet le Duc. Wat Pra Kaeow. 1900. London Metropolitan Board of Works. World?s Fairs. National Museums. Colonial Bombay. cole des Beaux-Arts. Arts and Crafts Movement. The Indo-Saracenic. Dutch Kampung. Shingle Style. The City Beautiful Movement. Rise of Professionalism. Skyscrapers. Art Nouveau. International Beaux Arts. Colonial Africa. The Deutsche Werkbund. Expressionism. De Stijl. 679 Russian Constructivism. Bauhaus. 1950. Modernism. Postmodernism. The Postmodern Museum. The Postmodern Postcolonial World. Globalization. Glossary. Bibliography. Photo Credits. Index.

APPLICATION OF LEAD ISOTOPE ANALYSIS TO A WIDE RANGE OF LATE BRONZE AGE EGYPTIAN MATERIALS*

Lead isotope analysis was applied to Egyptian materials from the Late Bronze Age in order to investigate the relationship between these different materials, many of which have lead as a significant component. The galena kohls analysed can be provenanced to Gebel Zeit, a large mining site known to have been active during the period. However, the source of lead metal is different and seems to be outside Egypt, along with the source of copper. Lead‐based pigments such as lead antimonate that were used in glass and glazes seem mostly to come from Egypt, although they may well contain a component of ‘Mesopotamian’ lead. In the Predynastic period, galena from many sources is being exploited for use as kohl. However, by the Middle Kingdom (2055–1650 bc), extraction has concentrated on one source, Gebel Zeit, perhaps reflecting increasingly centralized control and/or the use of large‐scale exploitation. It therefore appears that a complex pattern of trade in lead‐based materials was evident, with lead metal and galena being separate commodities from separate sources and treated as such.

The High Quality of Flint in The Form of Animals in Prehistoric Egypt

The High Quality of Flint in The Form of Animals in Prehistoric Egypt

The Characterization of Tortoise Shell and its Imitations

TORTOISE SHELL AND ITS IMITATIONS GEMS & GEMOLOGY SPRING 2006 he term “tortoise shell” generally refers to the carapacial (dorsal shell) and plastron (belly) plates of the hawksbill sea turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata). The use of tortoise shell dates at least to pre-dynastic Egypt (3500–3100 BC), from which period dishes, combs, bracelets, and the like are known (“Animal products...,” 2005). Tortoise shell objects were popular with both the ancient Greeks and wealthy citizens of ancient Rome (Bariand and Poirot, 1998). The commercial exploitation of this material in Europe began as early as the 15th century in Spain (“Natural plastics,” 2005), and many types of tortoise shell objects have been produced since then. These include furniture inlays, eyeglass frames, decorative boxes, rings, bracelets, and earrings (see, e.g., figure 1). In Japan, tortoise shell crafting, or bekko, has been an important industry since at least the 17th century, most of it centered in Nagasaki (Pedersen, 2004). Bekko objects such as hair ornaments are still being created today from stockpiled material. The vast majority of worked tortoise shell material comes from the shells of two species of sea turtles: the hawksbill and, more rarely, the green turtle (see box A). The shells of these turtles exhibit attractive patterns that normally consist of light to dark brown patches, though a homogeneous “cream”-colored variety called blond tortoise shell also exists. The popularity of tortoise shell during the 18th through early 20th centuries caused these animals to be hunted almost to extinction, leading to a near-worldwide ban on collection in the 1970s, as well as a ban on international trade in tortoise shell products (Spotila, 2004; box B). For the modern gemologist, tortoise shell has become a rather exotic material, for which a thorough gemological study is lacking.

Ostrich Eggs and Peacock Feathers: Sacred Objects as Cultural Exchange between Christianity and Islam1

This article uses the wide dispersal of ostrich eggs and peacock feathers among the different cultural contexts of the Mediterranean – and beyond into the Indian Ocean world – to explore the nature and limits of cultural inheritance and exchange between Christianity and Islam. These avian materials previously possessed symbolic meaning and material value as early as the pre-dynastic period in Egypt, as well as amid the early cultures of Mesopotamia and Crete. The main early cultural associations of the eggs and feathers were with death/resurrection and kingship respectively, a symbolism that was passed on into early Christian and Muslim usage. Mercantile, religious and political links across the premodern Mediterranean meant that these items found parallel employment all around the Mediterranean littoral, and beyond it, in Arabia, South Asia and Africa. As an essay in the uses of material culture in mapping cultural exchange and charting the eclectic qualities of popular religiosity, the article provides a wide-ranging survey of the presence of these objects, from their visual appearance in Renaissance paintings to their hanging in the shrines of Indo-Muslim saints. A final section draws conclusions on the relationship between shared objects, cultural boundaries and the writing of history.