Predicted Word Reading Research Articles

Predicting Word Reading Deficits Using an App-Based Screening Tool at School Entry.

BackgroundReading is a crucial competence associated with academic development, mental health, and social adaptation. Reading difficulties are often detected at a late stage, with a possible negative impact on long-term reading development and secondary developmental disadvantages. The first manifestations of reading difficulties can be identified by word reading deficits in first and second grade, paving the way for specific interventions. For widespread implementation, instruments must be easy to use and motivating for children.ObjectivesDevelopment and validation of an economical, well-accepted, and accurate screening tool composed of the domains of phonological information processing, language skills, and non-verbal intelligence in regular school settings.DesignIn 2020, the screening tool was used on a sample of 409 first graders between the second and fifth weeks of school in a one-to-one setting. Additionally, information on parental education and the use of German and/or other languages by the child was collected using a parental questionnaire. A follow-up involving the use of established standardized word reading tests was conducted at the end of the first school year.ResultsA five-variable screening tool consisting of the dimensions of phonological information processing (letter knowledge, rapid naming, and phonological awareness) and linguistic skills (receptive vocabulary and morphosyntax) showed statistical relevance (AUC = 0.78; sensitivity 0.80, specificity 0.74) for predicting word reading problems concerning reading speed (<16th percentile) at the end of first grade, whereas gender, first language, and age of first exposure to the German language did not contribute to the prediction. The instrument was well accepted by the children and screeners and can be administered within an acceptable time frame.ConclusionWord reading deficits at the end of first grade can be predicted by the use of an app-based screening tool at school entry that includes phonological information processing and language skills. Further validation and assessment of empirical feasibility data are needed to support the screening instrument for German orthography.

Cascaded processing in naming and reading: Evidence from Chinese and Korean

Previous studies have shown that the ability to simultaneously process multiple items when these appear in serial format (called “cascaded” processing) is an important element of reading fluency. However, most evidence in support of cascaded processing comes from studies conducted in European orthographies. Thus, the purpose of the current study was to examine whether the same findings generalize to nonlinear and nonalphabetic orthographies (i.e., Korean and Chinese). Serial and discrete naming of digits and objects were measured in a sample of 610 Chinese and Korean children from Grades 1, 3, 5, and 6. Children were also assessed on discrete word reading and on word- and text-reading fluency. Results of hierarchical regression analysis showed that discrete naming was the main predictor of discrete word reading in both languages as early as Grade 1. Serial digit naming was the main predictor of word-reading fluency across grades and languages. Finally, serial object naming made a unique contribution to word- and text-reading fluency in Chinese upper grades. Taken together, these findings suggest that, beyond accurate and fast word recognition, there is a universal multi-item (or cascaded) processing skill involved in serial naming and reading fluency.

Predictors of Word and Text Reading Fluency of Deaf Children in Bilingual Deaf Education Programmes

Reading continues to be a challenging task for most deaf children. Bimodal bilingual education creates a supportive environment that stimulates deaf children’s learning through the use of sign language. However, it is still unclear how exposure to sign language might contribute to improving reading ability. Here, we investigate the relative contribution of several cognitive and linguistic variables to the development of word and text reading fluency in deaf children in bimodal bilingual education programmes. The participants of this study were 62 school-aged (8 to 10 years old at the start of the 3-year study) deaf children who took part in bilingual education (using Dutch and Sign Language of The Netherlands) and 40 age-matched hearing children. We assessed vocabulary knowledge in speech and sign, phonological awareness in speech and sign, receptive fingerspelling ability, and short-term memory at time 1 (T1). At times 2 (T2) and 3 (T3), we assessed word and text reading fluency. We found that (1) speech-based vocabulary strongly predicted word and text reading at T2 and T3, (2) fingerspelling ability was a strong predictor of word and text reading fluency at T2 and T3, (3) speech-based phonological awareness predicted word reading accuracy at T2 and T3 but did not predict text reading fluency, and (4) fingerspelling and STM predicted word reading latency at T2 while sign-based phonological awareness predicted this outcome measure at T3. These results suggest that fingerspelling may have an important function in facilitating the construction of orthographical/phonological representations of printed words for deaf children and strengthening word decoding and recognition abilities.

Relating Phonological Awareness and Rapid Automatized Naming to Phonological and Orthographic Processing of Written Words: Cross‐sequential Evidence from French

ABSTRACTFew previous studies have directly linked the contribution of phonological awareness (PA) and rapid automatized naming (RAN) to the development of phonological processing and orthographic processing in reading. These studies are predominantly cross‐sectional and focus on reading development predictors, with relatively little emphasis on spelling achievement. The present study aims to address these issues with a cross‐sequential design conducted among French‐speaking beginning readers. Participants from kindergarten (n = 66) and Grade 1 (n = 87) were assessed with PA and RAN objects considering accuracy and speed. One year later, in Grade 1 or Grade 2, they were tested in word reading and spelling. ANOVAs showed a developmental change occurring in word reading and spelling between Grade 1 and Grade 2, going from phonological processing to orthographic processing. Hierarchical multiple regressions indicated that both PA and RAN predicted word reading and spelling in Grade 1, with a stronger proportion of the variance explained by RAN. In Grade 2, only PA explained the literacy outcomes, with a greater amount of the word spelling variance explained compared to the word reading variance. Our findings showed that PA and RAN contribute distinctively to word reading and spelling acquisition, suggesting that they represent independent processes. RAN's greater importance for early literacy skills (Grade 1) suggests that it accounts for the early processes implied in phonological processing. The longer‐lasting predictive value of PA (Grades 1 and 2) provides evidence of its importance for phonological and orthographic processing, especially in spelling.

Развитие способностей к декодированию у детей, говорящих на боснийском языке: лонгитюдное двухлетнее исследование

Reading is one of the most important academic skills that children master in the early grades of elementary school. The simple view of reading postulates that it consists of decoding abilities and linguistic understanding. The present study aims to explore the development of decoding abilities in the Bosnian language in children from Grade 3 to Grade 5. We assessed the relationships between word reading and pseudoword reading as measures of decoding skills, and phonemic deletion task, rapid automatized naming (RAN) of letters, and RAN of objects as the predictors of decoding skills. The sample for this study comprised 36 children (16 girls, 20 boys). This study’s results showed a significant improvement in decoding skills from Grade 3 to Grade 5. The best predictor of word reading in Grade 5 was RAN of objects in Grade 3, followed by RAN of letters in Grade 3. On the other hand, the significant predictors of pseudoword reading in Grade 5 were RAN of objects and the phoneme deletion task in Grade 3. Understanding reading development from Grade 3 to Grade 5 is informative and can help create better reading instruction for all readers.

Word Reading, Letter Knowledge, and Memory Skills in Danish Children (6-Year-Olds)

ABSTRACT In Denmark there is an ongoing trend towards a more ambitious literacy instruction in the first school year (Kindergarten). This calls for a clarification of present-day reading levels, and for a profile of the students who become readers while attending the semi-formal literacy program. The present study examined the extent to which a group of 209 Danish students had acquired word reading skills after 7 months of schooling, and whether reading levels in this group could be predicted from new measures of extended letter-sound knowledge and measures of memory skills. Results showed that 28% had acquired basic word reading skills. Further, measures of extended letter-sound knowledge explained significant variance above the measure of the fluency with which letters were named. Moreover, short term memory capacity was a stronger predictor of word reading compared to working memory and explained modest variance in reading after controlling for letter knowledge.

Relations between Executive Functions, Theory of Mind, and Functional Outcomes in Middle Childhood

ABSTRACT This study examined whether hot and cool executive functions (EFs) differentially predicted functional outcomes and the independent and mediating roles of theory of mind (ToM). 126 children completed tests of hot and cool EF, ToM, intelligence, and academic achievement. Parents completed questionnaires of peer problems and prosocial behavior. Hot and cool EFs differentially predicted intelligence and academic achievement, supporting a hot-cool distinction. ToM predicted word reading and prosocial behavior but did not mediate any associations between EF and functional outcomes. Findings contribute to current understandings of EF and its relationship with functional outcomes in middle childhood.

The Effects of Lexical Tone Awareness on Early Word Recognition, Word Reading, and Spelling From Dictation of Thai Children: A Longitudinal Study.

In tonal languages such as Thai, lexical tone (the pitch of a syllable) affects word meaning. This study examined the effects of lexical tone awareness (LTA) on early word recognition and the relationship between these abilities and word reading and spelling in subsequent grades. A longitudinal design was used to assess reading-related skills in 259 Thai children, first in kindergarten (130 girls, Mage=67.25months) and later in Grade 3 (Mage=102.25months). In kindergarten, the children were tested on lexical tone identification and differentiation, early literacy skills, non-verbal IQ, and early word recognition. In Grade 3, they were tested on word reading and spelling from dictation. The hierarchical regression analyses showed that the lexical tone identification skills in kindergarten accounted for 2% of the unique variance in early word recognition. However, none of the LTA skills could predict word reading and spelling from dictation after controlling for other literacy-related skills. These findings suggest that LTA skill positively associated with early word recognition at the kindergarten level, but not for word reading and spelling from dictation at a Grade 3 level.

Visuo-Spatial Abilities and Phonological Awareness as Predictors of Reading Accuracy in Arabic Children With and Without Dyslexia

ABSTRACT Although the link between developmental dyslexia and visual-spatial deficit has been recurrently highlighted, the relationship between visual-spatial abilities and reading performance is still a controversial issue, considering the orthographic variability of the language being learned. This study aimed to examine whether visuo-spatial abilities (i.e. attention, short-term memory, and relations) contribute significantly to predicting word and pseudo-word reading independently of phonological awareness in Arabic speaking children in grades 4 and 5. An inter-groups comparison between two groups of readers comprising typical readers (n = 44) and children with dyslexia (n = 32). All participants were tested in phonological (phonological awareness) and visuo-spatial measures (visual short-term memory test, visuo-spatial attention, and visuo-spatial relations). Results showed that typical readers outperformed the group of dyslexics in all the phonological and visuo-spatial measures. Visuo-spatial abilities were also a contributing factor in predicting word reading after controlling for phonological awareness, age, and non-verbal reasoning. Findings indicate that vowelised word reading in Arabic is heavily underpinned by phonological awareness and visuo-spatial abilities, found to be impaired in a group with dyslexia. Findings are viewed in the frame that reveals the integrated roles of phonological awareness and visual and spatial abilities in reading development.

Concurrent predictors of word reading and reading comprehension for 9-year-olds with Williams syndrome

We examined the cognitive, language, and instructional factors associated with reading ability in Williams syndrome (WS). Seventy 9-year-olds with WS completed standardized measures of real-word reading, pseudoword decoding, reading comprehension, phonological skills, listening comprehension, nonverbal reasoning, visual-spatial ability, verbal working memory, rapid naming, and vocabulary. Reading instruction method was determined from school records and interviews with parents and teachers. Similar to prior findings for individuals with WS, reading ability varied widely, ranging from inability to read any words to reading comprehension at age level. Multiple regression analyses indicated that the primary concurrent predictor of word reading ability was reading instruction method, with a systematic phonics approach associated with considerably better performance than other reading instruction approaches. Phonological processing skills—as assessed by a composite of phonological awareness and verbal short-term memory—also contributed significant unique variance to word reading ability, as did visual-spatial ability. The concurrent predictors of reading comprehension were single-word reading and listening comprehension. These findings indicate that the factors that predict concurrent early word reading and reading comprehension abilities for children with WS are consistent with previous findings for typically developing children and that the Simple View of Reading applies to children with WS. Children with WS benefit strongly from systematic phonics instruction regardless of IQ. Instruction focused on improving listening comprehension is likely to improve reading comprehension, especially as word reading skills increase.

Shared Predictors of Academic Achievement in Children with ADHD: A Multi-Sample Study

Objective: To identify common and shared predictors of academic achievement across samples of children with ADHD. Method: Two clinically referred samples from New Zealand (1 n = 88, 82% boys; 2 n = 121, 79% boys) and two community samples from the United States (3 n = 111, 65% boys; 4 n = 114, 69% boys), completed similar diagnostic, cognitive and academic assessments. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses identified significant predictors of word reading, spelling, and math computation performance in each sample. Results: Entered after IQ, semantic language, age at testing, and verbal working memory emerged as consistent predictors of achievement across academic subjects and samples. Visual-spatial working memory contributed to variance in math performance only. Symptom severity explained limited variance. Conclusions: We recommend evaluations of children with ADHD incorporate assessments of working memory and language skills. Classroom/academic interventions should accommodate reduced working memory and address any identified language weaknesses.

Unraveling the links between rapid automatized naming (RAN), phonological awareness, and reading.

It is well established that phonological awareness (PA) and rapid automatized naming (RAN) tasks reliably predict children’s developing word reading abilities across a wide range of languages. However, existing research has not yet demonstrated unequivocally whether RAN and PA are independently and causally linked to reading, nor has it fully explored the underlying cognitive mechanisms. Most existing research has assessed PA and RAN in children who may already have some reading skill, making direction of influence hard to ascertain. To address this, the current longitudinal research initially assessed RAN and PA in a very young sample of 91 English children (M age = 3 years 11 months; SD = 3.7 months) demonstrated to be nonreaders. Children were reassessed on RAN, PA, and word-level reading at 18 months (Time 2) and then a further year later (Time 3). To explore underlying mechanisms, separate measures of reading accuracy and fluency were taken, and reading tasks varied according to the extent to which they required alphabetic decoding and lexical, orthographic knowledge. Path analyses revealed that from Time 1 to Time 2, both RAN and PA predicted word reading, indicating temporal precedence, though there was some degree of reciprocity in these relationships. However, by Time 3, while RAN still predicted accuracy and fluency of reading, PA only predicted reading accuracy. Furthermore, findings suggested that while RAN was robustly related to both alphabetic decoding and lexical, orthographic aspects of reading, PA’s relationship was restricted to alphabetic decoding accuracy. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved)

A longitudinal study on bidirectional relations between executive functions and English word-level reading in Chinese American children in immigrant families

This two-wave (1.5 years apart) longitudinal study examined the bidirectional relations between measures of executive function (EF; working memory, attention focusing, inhibitory control, and a comprehensive EF measure) and two types of English word-level reading (pseudoword reading and word reading) among 258 school-aged children (52.6% boys, age = 5.8–9.1 years, in 1st to 3rd grades at Wave 1) from Chinese American immigrant families. Cross-lagged panel analyses were conducted to test whether the four EF measures and English word-level reading proficiency predicted one another controlling for prior levels of EF or reading, as well as demographic characteristics and children's English and Chinese language proficiency. We found a positive bidirectional association between the comprehensive EF measure and pseudoword reading. By contrast, although the comprehensive EF measure positively predicted word reading over time, word reading did not predict comprehensive EF. Additionally, both word reading and pseudoword reading positively predicted working memory over time. The results provided partial evidence that English word-level reading is bidirectionally related to EF among early elementary school-age dual language learners.

Orthographic Knowledge, and Reading and Spelling: A Longitudinal Study in an Intermediate Depth Orthography.

Orthographic knowledge is an important contributor to reading and spelling. However, empirical research is unclear about its long-lasting influence along with literacy development. We examined whether reading and spelling benefitted from an independent contribution of lexical and sublexical orthographic knowledge in European Portuguese, an intermediate depth orthography. This was investigated longitudinally from Grade 2 to 5 with two cohorts of Portuguese children, using common measures of orthographic knowledge, and word and pseudoword reading and spelling tasks. Regression analyses showed that lexical orthographic knowledge assessed at the beginning of Grade 2 predicted word reading at the beginning of Grade 3 (p < .05, variance explained = 6%), word spelling at the end of Grade 2 (p < .05, variance explained = 6%) and pseudoword spelling at the beginning of Grade 3 (p < .05, variance explained = 8%). They also revealed that lexical orthographic knowledge assessed at the beginning of Grade 4 predicted word spelling at the end of Grade 4 (p < .001, variance explained = 21%). Differently, sublexical orthographic knowledge evaluated at the beginning of Grade 2 and of Grade 4 only contributed to pseudoword spelling at the beginning of Grade 3 (p < .01, variance explained = 12%), and to pseudoword reading at the end of Grade 5 (p < .01, variance explained = 9%), respectively. Therefore, orthographic knowledge predicted spelling more often and earlier than reading. Furthermore, the results suggest that the influence of orthographic knowledge may vary during literacy development and, along with findings from other studies, that this influence at the lexical level may depend on orthographic consistency.

Profiling the Word Reading Abilities of School-Age Children with Neurofibromatosis Type 1.

Reading difficulties are one of the most significant challenges for children with neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1). The aims of this study were to identify and categorize the types of reading impairments experienced by children with NF1 and to establish predictors of poor reading in this population. Children aged 7-12 years with NF1 (n = 60) were compared with typically developing children (n = 36). Poor word readers with NF1 were classified according to impairment type (i.e., phonological, surface, mixed), and their reading subskills were compared. A hierarchical multiple regression was conducted to identify predictors of word reading. Compared to controls, children with NF1 demonstrated significantly poorer literacy abilities. Of the 49 children with NF1 classified as poor readers, 20 (41%) were classified with phonological dyslexia, 24 (49%) with mixed dyslexia, and 5 (10%) fell outside classification categories. Children with mixed dyslexia displayed the most severe reading impairments. Stronger working memory, better receptive language, and fewer inattentive behaviors predicted better word reading skills. The majority of children with NF1 experience deficits in key reading skills which are essential for them to become successful readers. Weaknesses in working memory, receptive language, and attention are associated with reading difficulties in children with NF1.

The Role of Phonological, Auditory Sensory and Cognitive Skills on Word Reading Acquisition: A Cross-Linguistic Study.

Despite considerable evidence regarding the influence of orthography on reading processing, the impact of orthographic depth on reading predictors remains unclear. In addition, it also remains unknown the role of the orthography in the influence of auditory temporal processing and attention skills on word reading skills. The current study investigates the word reading predictors in a group of British and Brazilian children with typical development considering phonological, auditory sensory, short-term memory, and sustained attention skills. Rhyme and Alliteration skills predicted word reading in both groups; however, the correlation in the British group was more robust. Short-term memory was also correlated with reading in both groups; however, it was a significant word reading predictor only in the British group. The auditory sensory was not directly correlated with word reading in either group; however, it was involved with Rhyme and Alliteration performance only in the British group. Those results were discussed considering the complexity of the phonological structure and opaque orthography in English when compared to Portuguese, which indicates that the less transparent the orthography, the higher the importance of factors such as phonological awareness, short-term memory, and to some extent, auditory sensory processing skills on word reading acquisition. Those results emphasize the need to consider orthography and phonological features of a particular language when developing a reading assessment and treatments.

Predicting Word Reading and Word Writing of Kindergarteners with Phonology, Orthography, Morpho-semantics

ë°°ê²½ 및 ëª©ì  국내 ìœ ì¹˜ì›ì‹œê¸° 아동은 초기 문해 발달이 활발하게 ì´ë£¨ì–´ì§€ê³ ìžˆë‹¤. 이 연구는 ì·¨í•™ì „ 아동을 대상으로 낱말 읽기 및 낱말 쓰기 ëŠ¥ë ¥ì— 대해 ìŒìš´ì²˜ë¦¬ë ¥, ì² ìžë ¥, í˜•íƒœì˜ë¯¸ë ¥ì´ 어떤 ì„¤ëª ë ¥ì„ 갖는지 살펴보았다. 방법 지능 í‰ê· ì´ 100인 7세 반 아동 70ëª ì„ 대상으로 자소와 음소가 일치하는 2ìŒì ˆ 낱말 14개와 무의미 낱말 14개를 ì½ê³ ì“°ë„ë¡ 한 후, 자소 기준으로 ì±„ì í•˜ì˜€ë‹¤. 초기 ë¬¸í•´ë ¥ ì„¤ëª ë³€ì¸ìœ¼ë¡œ ìŒìš´ì²˜ë¦¬ë ¥ì—ì„œëŠ” 음운인식, ë¹ ë¥¸ì´ë¦„ëŒ€ê¸°, 음운기억, ì² ìžë ¥ì—ì„œëŠ” 자소 지식, ë³µì‚¬ê¸°ìˆ , ê·¸ë¦¬ê³ í˜•íƒœì˜ë¯¸ë ¥ì—ì„œëŠ” 형태소인식, 어휘, 이야기문법 회상을 ì¸¡ì •í•˜ê³ ì¤‘ë‹¤íšŒê·€ë¶„ì„ì„ 실시하였다. ê²°ê³¼ 의미 낱말 읽기는 자소 지식, ë¹ ë¥¸ì´ë¦„ëŒ€ê¸°, 음운기억, í˜•íƒœì†Œì¸ì‹ë ¥ì´ 57.2%, 무의미 낱말읽기는 자소 지식, ë¹ ë¥¸ì´ë¦„ëŒ€ê¸°, 음운기억, ë³µì‚¬ê¸°ìˆ ì´ 65.1% ì„¤ëª í•˜ì˜€ë‹¤. 의미 낱말 쓰기는 자소 지식, ë³µì‚¬ê¸°ìˆ , í˜•íƒœì†Œì¸ì‹ë ¥ì´ 66.7%를, 무의미 낱말 쓰기는 ë³µì‚¬ê¸°ìˆ , 음운인식, 자소 지식이 59.1% ì„¤ëª í•˜ì˜€ë‹¤. ë ¼ì˜ 및 ê²°ë¡ ë‚±ë§ 및 무의미 낱말 읽기에 있어 ë¹ ë¥¸ì´ë¦„ëŒ€ê¸°ì™€ ìŒìš´ê¸°ì–µë ¥ì´, 무의미 쓰기에 있어 ìŒìš´ì¸ì‹ë ¥ì´ ì„¤ëª ë ¥ì„ 갖는 것은 ìŒìš´ì²˜ë¦¬ë ¥ì´ 초기 ë¬¸í•´ë ¥ê³¼ 깊은 ê´€ë ¨ì´ 있음을 지지한다. ì² ìžë ¥ì´ 높은 ì„¤ëª ë ¥ì„ 갖는 것은 한국의 ì·¨í•™ì „ 아동들이 자소와 음소의 대응관계를 활발하게 íƒìƒ‰í•˜ê³ ìŠµë“í•´ê°€ëŠ” 음성음운 단계에 있음을 시사한다. 또한 의미를 기반으로 하는 í˜•íƒœì†Œì¸ì‹ë ¥ì´ 의미 낱말 읽기와 쓰기에 ì„¤ëª ë ¥ì´ ìžˆê³ , ìŒìš´ì²˜ë¦¬ë ¥ì´ 의미 낱말 및 무의미 낱말 읽기 모두에 ì„¤ëª ë ¥ì„ 갖는 것은 이중경로모형이 한국아동에게도 ì ìš©ë¨ì„ 시사한다. 후속연구를 통해 ìœ ì¹˜ì› 단계에서부터 발달성 ë‚œë ì•„ì´ë“¤ì„ ì§€ì›í• ìˆ˜ 있는 방법을 ë§ˆë ¨í• í•„ìš”ê°€ 있다. Keywords: ìœ ì¹˜ì›ê¸° 낱말 읽기와 쓰기, ìŒìš´ì²˜ë¦¬ë ¥, 자소 지식과 ë³µì‚¬ê¸°ìˆ , í˜•íƒœì†Œì¸ì‹ë ¥

What Strategies Do Less-Skilled Adult Readers Use to Read Words, and How Aware Are They of These Strategies?

Less-skilled adult readers have been found to be limited in their awareness and use of effective reading strategies. In this study, we aimed to (a) identify the strategies used by less-skilled adult readers that best predict word reading performance on standardized reading tests and (b) identify the word reading strategies that less-skilled adult readers reported using, as well as the extent to which these reports correlated with direct observations of reading behaviors. Results indicated that readers relied on six main strategies to read unknown words, but only two significantly contributed to prediction of actual word reading performance. These were also the two strategies that were most poorly understood by the readers. The findings emphasize the need for programs to incorporate methods to increase metacognitive awareness and strategy use in adults with reading difficulties.

Mandarin-speaking preschoolers' pitch discrimination, prosodic and phonological awareness, and their relation to receptive vocabulary and reading abilities.

Cross-linguistic studies have reported that prosodic pattern awareness (e.g., lexical stress and lexical tone) is more important to reading acquisition than phonological awareness. However, few longitudinal studies have been conducted to explore the relations between these variables. This study examined preschoolers' pitch discrimination, prosodic and phonological awareness, and their connection to receptive vocabulary in preschool and reading abilities in first grade. Findings reveal (1) children improve their pitch discrimination and prosodic awareness from preschool to fourth grade; (2) pitch interval discrimination (frequency separation between tones) contributes to receptive vocabulary whereas pitch contour discrimination (patterns of rising and falling pitch) predicts word reading; (3) phonological awareness accounts for more variability in receptive vocabulary than prosodic awareness; whereas the reverse was found for word reading and reading comprehension. Together, prosody and its acoustic cue (i.e., pitch) play a vital role in learning to read Mandarin.

Predictors of Reading Skills at the First and Second Grade: The Role of Orthography

We investigated the predictive power of cognitive skills and background variables of 769 first and second grade children learning to read two orthographically different languages Finnish and German in three countries Finland, Germany and Italy. Main results from stepwise regression models showed that in all countries word reading at first grade was best predicted by letter-sound-connection, as found in other transparent orthographies. In Italy and Finland also phoneme blending, a demanding phoneme awareness skill, was a good predictor. Surprisingly, in Germany initial phoneme identification which is a basic phone awareness skill, and mother’s occupation predicted first grade reading. At second grade in Finland and Germany the strongest predictors of word reading were rapid naming, in Finland also short-term-memory and in Germany and Italy reading level at the first grade. Results indicate that both orthographical and educational differences in the three countries can account for different predictors in reading.