Livestock Predation Research Articles

Assessing the impact of human activities and land use change on livestock depredation by large carnivores in Mexico

Human-carnivore conflicts, arising from the predation of domestic animals, contribute to global declines in carnivore populations, primarily due to retaliatory and preventative killings. Understanding the contextual factors that commonly lead to such conflicts is crucial for developing policies and strategies that mitigate economic losses for individuals and reduce human-caused mortality of carnivores. In this study, we used livestock predation insurance claim records filed in Mexico from 2017 to 2020, alongside potentially significant anthropogenic and landscape variables, to explore the relationship between the occurrence of livestock predations and the degree of disturbance or transformation of natural habitats across the country. Our findings reveal that predation sites were widespread throughout Mexico, but their distribution varied in relation to the degree of anthropogenic transformation of habitats. The occurrences of predation by jaguar, puma, and black bear were associated with landscape attributes indicative of anthropogenic changes, including urbanization, deforestation, habitat conversion to intensive agriculture, roads, cultivated pastures, and livestock density. We propose that classified model of anthropic variables can serve as an effective planning tool to identify, prioritize, and address the vulnerability of livestock to carnivores, providing a strategic framework for managing and mitigating human-carnivore conflicts.

Exploration of circumstances surrounding bites from potentially rabid dogs on rampage, and the coping strategies of victims and communities in Central Uganda

Free-roaming dogs (FRDs) cause 86% of the 14,865 dog bites recorded annually and 20 rabies-related deaths in Uganda. Unfortunately, there is a lack of data on the circumstances surrounding the bites, which undermines the development of effective mitigation measures. To address this gap, we actively tracked reports involving aggressive dogs in the Kampala metropolitan area in Central Uganda. Our approach included tracing the responsible dogs to rule out rabies and conducting interviews with victims and community members. We investigated seven incidents, including two rampages, two instances of aggressive behaviour in dogs, two cases of livestock predation, and one incident where a dog strayed into a residence. In three of the seven incidents, the dogs managed to escape due to factors such as nighttime cover, easy access to hideouts in slums, and limited community support. Of the four dogs that were traced, three were confirmed positive for rabies using the fluorescent antibody test. In total, 53 bite cases were recorded, affecting 29 humans—predominantly children (72.4%)—and 24 animals, including cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, pet dogs, and poultry. Notably, the two rampages accounted for 47 bite cases (88.7%), with the highest dog-to-bite incident ratio of 1:37 occurring in Matugga, Wakiso District. Despite 96.6% of the human victims being eligible for rabies post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) due to sustaining deep wounds, 58.6% sought treatment from traditional healers, 13.8% self-medicated with local herbs, and 3.4% did not take any intervention. The community’s response to the rampages was to kill the responsible dogs. However, in one instance where the dog could not be traced, the community resorted to indiscriminately killing roaming dogs in the area, using sticks and stones in a mob. Our study underscores the significant threat that FRDs pose in the transmission of rabies. To achieve the global target of eliminating dog-mediated rabies by 2030, it is essential to enhance rabies vaccination coverage for dogs to meet the WHO-recommended threshold of 70%. Additionally, mass education efforts should be prioritized at both the community level and in schools, particularly in areas where rabies is endemic and dogs roam freely.

Livestock predation patterns by gray wolves and persian leopards in Iran

Large carnivore species frequently predate and consume wild or domestic prey, which is referred to as food-related predation. Large carnivores can also hunt and kill prey exceeding their immediate needs (i.e., they do not consume prey), which is referred to as surplus predation. We used 173 records of livestock predations by gray wolves (Canis lupus; n = 133) and Persian leopards (Panthera pardus tulliana; n = 40) reported by governmental organizations of Iran during 2009–2019 to investigate food-related and surplus predation incidents of livestock. We found that for wolves, the number of reported surplus predation incidents was greater than that of food-related predation incidents during all 4 seasons (spring through winter), whereas for leopards, the number of food-related and surplus predation incidents were similar in all seasons. The number of livestock killed per surplus predation incident was greater for wolves than for leopards and that surplus predations by both species occurred more frequently within corrals than on free-range pastures. As corrals in most villages across Iran are poorly constructed and largely accessible to predators, we recommend that livestock owners enhance corral construction, use well-trained dogs during day and particularly at night, employ people to watch livestock at night, and use fire (e.g., torches) during night to scare carnivores. These strategies can mitigate predation incidents and corresponding economic losses, resulting in fewer losses of livestock, wolves, and leopards, as these two carnivore species are mainly killed by humans due to livestock predations across Iran.

The importance of livestock in the diet of Mexican wolf Canis lupus baileyi in northwestern Mexico

The reintroduction of the Mexican wolf in the wilds of northwestern Mexico has allowed us to address its trophic ecology and elucidate conflicts with livestock producers: their main mortality factor. Our objective was to determine the feeding habits of wolves in Mexico, as well as the quantity and frequency of livestock predation in relation to seasonal and individual variables, through the analysis of genetically identified scats. During 2012–2022 we collected 1171 Mexican wolf scats. We extracted and sequenced DNAm and identified individuals and their sex using microsatellite analysis. We washed the scat and separated the undigested components for taxonomic identification. We estimated the frequency of prey items, the biomass it contributed to the diet, and compared prey consumption between sexes and between the birth and dispersal seasons. We constructed generalized linear models to identify the relationship between livestock presence in the diet and dietary prey richness with respect to environmental and individual variables. We identified 68 wolves that had consumed 30 species of vertebrates. Of these, white‐tailed deer (36.12%), diversionary feeding (22.79%), and cattle (25.56%) had the highest contribution to biomass. The ingestion of items was independent of the sex of the wolves but was dependent on the season. The presence of deer and diversionary feeding decreased the likelihood of cattle being ingested but also decreased the richness of items of wild species in the wolf diet. Wolves in northwestern Mexico fed mainly on large prey available in the reintroduction area, including livestock. As wolves consume livestock, it increases the risk of retaliatory actions from ranchers. Our results serve as a basis for the implementation of strategies to reduce human–wolf conflicts and set a baseline for coexistence in northwestern Mexico.

Livestock guarding dogs shape activity patterns of sympatric mesocarnivores in sheep ranches of the Patagonia region

Predation of livestock by wild carnivores is a source of human-wildlife conflict. Livestock Guarding Dogs (LGDs) are one of the most effective non-lethal methods used. LGDs could impact wildlife due to their possible top predator role; their effect on mesocarnivores has been studied mainly in terms of space use, however, temporal effects may also exist. Our study sought to determine the possible effects of LGD presence on the activity patterns of the native foxes Lycalopex griseus and L. culpaeus in southern Chile. Activity patterns were estimated from fox detections with camera traps set on ranches with and without LGDs in Isla Riesco, Magallanes region, Chile, between 2016 and 2018. We quantified the activity patterns of each fox species in presence/absence of LGDs, and under different conditions including breeding vs non-breeding season, moon phase and vegetation cover. Both species modified their daily activity pattern, avoiding times of day of high LGD activity; nevertheless, these modifications did not change the temporal interaction between the native foxes. Activity patterns of foxes without LGDs did not differ from those in natural areas. The effect of LGDs on fox activity patterns was stronger than other ecological variables (breeding season, moon phase or vegetation cover). Since LGDs change the activity patterns of foxes, they cannot be seen as a totally innocuous predation control tool; however, carnivores’ temporal avoidance of areas with a fear-evoking agent like LGDs would result in fewer livestock-predators encounters, thus reducing sheep predation risk. LGDs appear to exert non-lethal effects upon carnivores that would contribute to reduced predation rates and may help decrease producers’ economic losses, as well as the retaliatory hunting of wild carnivores. Thus, our results support that LGDs could be contributing to the co-existence with native predators in areas destined for livestock production.

Relative abundance of a mesocarnivore in a human-dominated, semi-arid rangeland in Namibia

Mesocarnivores fill important roles in ecological communities globally, but their distribution and abundance are often understudied. Many species have historically been regarded as vermin and subject to lethal control due to their role in livestock predation. Identifying the factors influencing mesocarnivore populations can help disentangle their relationship within ecological communities and inform conflict mitigation and conservation priorities. To help identify these factors, we used camera traps to study the community of medium and large mammals in four communal conservancies of northeastern Namibia covering the wet and dry seasons using 99 and 97 camera trap stations, respectively. We modelled black-backed jackal (Lupulella mesomelas) abundance using the robust Royle-Nichols model. Black-backed jackal were widespread, with a mean per site abundance of 2.01 (SD=0.66) in the wet season and 2.41 (SD=0.49) in the dry season. Black-backed jackal showed seasonally contrasting covariate associations, with lower abundance in areas with medium and large-sized wild prey during the wet season, and higher abundance in areas with more villages and close to African wild dog (Lycaon pictus) dens in the dry season. We identified localized hotspots of black-backed jackal abundance during the dry season, which may indicate that when resources are scarce, black-backed jackals rely on anthropogenic food sources despite an elevated risk for conflict, and on carcass remains from African wild dog kills. These findings highlight potential drivers of mesocarnivore abundance that would be obscured in a conventional occurrence modelling framework, and illustrate how local abundance may be influenced by seasonal variability, wild and anthropogenic food sources, and a likely facilitative relationship with a large carnivore. Further investigations in areas with more complex carnivore guilds and higher density of dominant predators are needed to understand black-backed jackal-African wild dog interactions and impacts on population dynamics.

Evaluating the effects of wolf culling on livestock predation when considering wolf population dynamics in an individual‐based model

The efficiency of the management of predations on livestock by gray wolves (Canis lupus) through culling is under debate. Evaluating wolf culling efficiency requires to simultaneously analyze the effects of culling on the wolf population and the repercussions of these population changes on livestock predation. This protocol is technically difficult to implement in the field. To properly assess culling efficiency, we provided an integrated and flexible individual‐based model that simulated interactions between wolf population dynamics, predation behavior and culling management. We considered many social processes in wolves. We calibrated the model to match the Western Alps as a case study. By considering the prey community in this area and the opportunistic nature of wolf predation, we assumed that predation on livestock at the wolf territory level increased with pack's food needs. Under this assumption and considering livestock availability as high and livestock vulnerability as uniform in space and time, culling maintained wolf population size and predation risks at low levels. Contrary to what was expected, culling decreased the mean annual proportions of dispersing wolves in our simulations, by speeding settlement. This population‐level mechanism compensated for the high mortality and the pack instability caused by culling. Compensation was however dependent on the selectivity and the timing of culling. When executed before the natural mortality module in our model, the selective culling could undermine replacement of lost breeders and therefore decrease wolf population resilience to culling. Our model gives insights about culling effects in one specific simulated context, but we do not expect that our assumption about predation behavior necessarily holds in other ecological contexts and we therefore encourage further explorations of the model.

Assessment of the Efficiency of Problematic Animal Interventions in Mitigating Human-Wildlife Conflicts in Uganda: A Case Study of Lake Mburo National Park

Human-wildlife conflict is a significant challenge in Uganda, particularly in areas where human populations and wildlife habitats overlap. This study examines the efficiency of various interventions aimed at mitigating human wildlife conflicts in and around Lake Mburo National Park, a region renowned for its rich biodiversity and diverse ecosystems. Lake Mburo National Park is surrounded by agricultural and pastoralist communities that frequently experience crop raiding, livestock predation, and threats to human safety from wildlife. Various interventions, including physical barriers, deterrents, translocation of problematic animals, and community engagement initiatives, have been implemented to address these conflicts. This study employs a mixed-methods approach, incorporating both quantitative and qualitative data collection methods, including field observations, community surveys, and analysis of intervention outcomes. A total of 125 households were interviewed across several parishes of Rurambira, Rwamuhuku, Rwabarata, Kizimbi, Kashojwa and Rwetango in Kiruhura and Isingiro districts. The findings indicate that the majority of respondents have lived in the area for over 20 years, providing them with extensive knowledge of local wildlife interactions. The results highlight that hippos (76%) are the most problematic animals, primarily causing crop damage, which significantly impacts local livelihoods. The study reveals that guarding property (98%), though stressful and time-consuming, is the most effective and commonly used intervention. Other measures, such as strong shelters, trapping, translocation, and various deterrents, show varying degrees of effectiveness depending on the species involved. The study concludes that understanding the species-specific and context-specific effectiveness of these interventions is crucial for developing sustainable strategies to mitigate HWC. The insights gained from this research can inform future conflict mitigation strategies and contribute to the broader discourse on human-wildlife coexistence in Uganda and similar settings worldwide

Human-wildlife conflict and community perceptions towards wildlife conservation in and around a biodiverse National Park, northern Ethiopia

Crop raiding and livestock predation significantly influence the perception of the local community regarding wildlife conservation. The primary aim of this study was to evaluate the scope, characteristics and origin of human-wildlife conflict, as well as the local community’s attitudes towards wildlife conservation within the vicinity of Kafta-Sheraro National Park, northern Ethiopia. The study was conducted in 2020 between April and October. A multi-stage sampling design was adopted to select 260 households to examine respondents' opinions on the extent and underlying cause of human-wildlife conflict, communities' perception towards wildlife conservation, the damage that wild animal species cause and traditional human-wildlife conflict mitigation measures applied. Our results showed that the spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta), leopard (Panthera pardus) and African elephant (Loxodonta africana) were the top three species involved in conflicts as reported by the respondents. Both livestock depredation and crop raiding were the most serious human-wildlife conflict types in and around Kafta-Sheraro National Park. About 48 % of the respondents confirmed that illegal subsistence farming expansion and prohibited grazing were the main causes of human-wildlife conflict. The results of the multiple linear regression model indicated that education and the distance of villages to the park boundary are significant predictors of local community perceptions towards wildlife conservation. In the study area, the perception of the local community is greatly influenced by the benefit received from the park. To alleviate human-wildlife conflicts in and around Kafta-Sheraro National Park, residents used a combination of lethal and non-lethal mitigation measures. Therefore, environmental conservation education and managing the human-wildlife conflict are needed to improve the local community’s perception towards wildlife conservation and to design wildlife conservation strategies in Kafta-Sheraro National Park.

Livestock predation, crop raiding, and community attitudes towards sustainable wildlife conservation in and around Mankira Forest, Southwest Ethiopia

Crop raiding and livestock predation negatively impact the views of the local community towards wildlife conservation. Farmers across the African continent, especially those in rural regions, incur financial losses as a result of crop raiding and livestock depredation. The sustainability of the forest relies heavily on comprehending the essential connection between a harmonious park-people relationship and the coexistence of humans and wildlife. The primary aim of this study is to evaluate the predation of livestock, the raiding of crops, and the attitudes of the community towards wildlife in the Mankira Forest located in southwest Ethiopia. This particular area has been lacking in scientific research, making it crucial to conduct this assessment. The data were collected between November 2021 and September 2022 via a structured questionnaire. This study used a sample of 241 randomly selected respondents from the four villages, and responses were compared using chi-square tests. Pearson correlation was also used to test the relationship between the distance of farmland and the extent of crop raiding. The majority of the respondents (95%) reported the presence of crop raiding and livestock predation in the area. These losses were caused by the Papio anubis (39%), the Chlorocebus aethiops (24.1%), the Hystrix cristata (15.3%), the Canis aures (58.3%), and the Crocutacrocuta (29.5%). Maize stood out as the crop type most susceptible to crop raiders. Most of the respondents (56.7%) had a negative attitude towards wildlife conservation. There was a significant difference among age groups of respondents related to their attitude towards wildlife conservation (p < 0.05). The study highlights the need to address several gaps in understanding and managing human-wildlife conflict through research on predation, raiding, and community attitudes. Therefore, to fulfill the dual goals of community support and conservation of wildlife, rigorous management and planning are needed.

Lighting up mountain coexistence: Understanding the effects of environment and livestock on habitat use by Andean bear in a conflict zone in Peruvian Andes

In Tropical Andes, livestock predation is the main cause of conflict between Andean bears (Tremarctos ornatus) and humans. In central Peru, the small village of San Pedro de Churco, located in buffer zone of Pampa Hermosa National Sanctuary, has experienced a conflict with Andean bears since 2013 due to the livestock depredation of cattle. To create a baseline for formulating mitigation measures, we seek to analyze which environmental and anthropogenic characteristics best explain the habitat use by the Andean bear in this conflict region. Using camera traps, transects, and occupancy modeling, we distributed 16 sampling units in the conflict area from May 2019 to November 2020. We collected seven variables: slope, forest cover, the occurrence of Puya bromeliads, livestock abundance, distance from S.P. Churco village, distance to trails, and rainfall. We expected that variables linked to food resources would have a large explanatory weight (w+) positively on habitat use by the Andean bear, while anthropogenic variables would have a negative impact on the species’ habitat use due to disturbances caused by human activity. Our results demonstrated the importance of maintaining the cloud forests (w+=0.61) and the high-Andean grasslands with Puya (w+=0.66) for the establishment of the Andean bear in conflict areas, in addition to the effect of seasonality (w+=0.63) on the use of different habitats and the resource availability for the species. However, the presence of abundant livestock (w+=-0.64) may be causing the displacement of bears, negatively impacting the availability of their habitats in conflict zones. The habitat use rate by bears across the study area was 0.69 with a detectability of 0.15, and we identified six individuals through the body marks. Based on the results and the conflict landscape, we mapped the focal areas sampling with the greatest potential for livestock depredation by Andean bears and the implications for management and coexistence. Measures that conserve cloud forests and the Puya grasslands, as well as more sustainable and profitable livestock management practices can be prioritized to reduce human-bear conflict in the region.

Effectiveness of attractants and bait for Iberian wolf detection: captivity-based and free-ranging trials

Monitoring large carnivores requires substantial effort, which is why indirect methodologies such as camera trapping with attractants or baits are commonly employed. The Iberian wolf (Canis lupus signatus) is one of the top predators in the Iberian Peninsula, and monitoring its packs is essential to understand its distribution and mitigate conflicts arising from livestock predation. We performed a captivity-based study evaluating the effectiveness of five attractants (beef extract, cadaverine, Fatty Acid Scent (FAS), lynx urine and valerian extract) on wolf detection. To accomplish this objective, Jacobs selectivity index and generalized linear models were employed to assess the attractiveness and induced behaviour of each attractant. Subsequently, the three most effective attractants, combined or not with a bait, were tested in the field and analyzed using generalized linear mixed models. The five attractants tested elicited different behavioural responses in the wolves in captivity, including smelling, rubbing, rolling, marking and licking. Among the captive wolves, cadaverine, FAS and lynx urine emerged as the top three preferred attractants. In the field tests with these three attractants cadaverine remained the most preferred option. The inclusion of bait did not have any significant effect on the wolf’s visitation rates. Our results show that employing species-specific attractants can significantly improve the efficiency of carnivore surveys conducted in the field. Specifically, cadaverine was the most effective attractant for wild Iberian wolves. Consequently, the careful selection of an appropriate attractant becomes crucial to attain the precise objectives of the study, such as camera trapping, bait deployment or DNA sampling.

A Genetic Tool to Identify Predators Responsible for Livestock Attacks in South America and Recommendations for Human-Wildlife Conflict Mitigation.

Livestock predation induces global human-wildlife conflict, triggering the retaliatory killing of large carnivores. Although domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) contribute to livestock depredation, blame primarily falls on wild predators. Dogs can also transmit pathogens between wildlife, domestic animals, and humans. Therefore, the presence of free-ranging dogs can have negative consequences for biodiversity conservation, smallholder economy, food supply, and public health, four of the United Nations' Sustainable Developed Goals (SDGs) for 2030. In Ecuador, where livestock sustains rural households, retaliatory poaching threatens Andean bear (Tremarctos ornatus), jaguar (Panthera onca), and puma (Puma concolor) populations. However, the role of dogs in these incidents remains underexplored. The present study evaluates the possibility of reliable molecular identification of predatory species from DNA traces in bite wounds. Our results revealed the presence of dog saliva on four out of six livestock carcasses presumably attacked by wild predators. These findings highlight the importance of rectifying misinformation about large carnivores in Ecuador and the need to control dog populations. We recommend that local administrations incorporate DNA analysis into livestock predation events to examine how common the problem is, and to use the analysis to develop conflict mitigation strategies which are essential for the conservation of large carnivores.

Living with wildlife and associated conflicts in areas adjacent to protected areas, Northern Zimbabwe

AbstractHuman–wildlife conflicts (HWCs) are a worldwide problem, especially around protected areas where human and wildlife needs overlap. This study focused on the Chundu communal area and the Nyamakate resettlement area in Northern Zimbabwe, with three primary objectives: (i) to identify problematic wildlife species frequently involved in HWC in these areas; (ii) to examine the temporal variations of HWC cases; and (iii) to assess the effectiveness of current and suggested mitigation measures for managing these conflicts. Data were collected in November 2019 and February 2020, periods identified as peak times for HWC in these areas. A comprehensive three‐stage sampling design was used to collect data for this study. Data were collected through household questionnaires from 16 villages (64 households) in the Nyamakate resettlement area and nine villages (36 households) from the Chundu communal area. The study identified the spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta) as the most problematic animal in livestock predation, followed by the African lion (Panthera leo) and leopard (Panthera pardus). There were no significant differences in HWC between the dry season (M = 315, SD = 417.79) and the wet season (M = 383, SD = 540.19; t[4] = −0.43, p &gt; 0.05). The study concluded that HWC occurred throughout the year in both communities, unaffected by seasonal variations. It was determined that current mitigation measures are inadequate for managing HWC in both areas. In light of these findings, the study recommends the use of nonlethal methods in HWC management, reserving lethal means as a last resort.

The synergistic impact of socioeconomic and landscape factors on spatial patterns of human-wildlife conflicts

With the expansion of human activities and increasingly effective protection of biodiversity, human-wildlife conflicts (HWCs) are increasing. Determining the patterns and causes of HWCs at the landscape scale is important for the design and implementation of effective management actions. We used in-house questionnaires, combined with data from insurance companies and other sources, to take the Tibetan Plateau as an example to reveal the pattern and potential causes of HWCs. Livestock predation and house break-ins were the most common types of conflict on the plateau, and wolves (Canis lupus) (56.9 %) and bears (Ursus arctos) (35.8 %) were the main culprits. In the pastoral zone, 65.3 % of conflicts were caused by wolves, more than in other regions, and bears accounted for 20.8 %. Bears were responsible for house break-ins in crop-dominated zones (60.5 %), while they preyed on livestock in mixed crop and pasture zones (80.0 %). Differences in forest cover between regions are likely to be the cause of this, with bears preying more on livestock in areas with greater forest cover. Livestock loss caused by wolves increased, and those caused by bears decreased, with increase in elevation. Households with more livestock experienced a greater incidence of HWCs. Livestock losses were lower in counties with higher gross regional product per capita, and economic development likewise influenced the occurrence of HWCs. Our research findings provide a fundamental understanding of the patterns of HWC, which can inform the development of evidence-based policies and strategies for effectively addressing HWCs in the future.

Human- common hippo (Hippopotamus amphibius)-conflict in the Dhidhessa Wildlife Sanctuary and its surrounding, Southwestern Ethiopia.

The common hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius) is one of the most endangered mega herbivore in Africa. Although the human-hippo conflict (HHC) is currently escalating due to habitat loss, little is known about the scope of the conflict and potential mitigation measures. From 2021 to 2022, the extent of HHC, the perception of local inhabitants towards the animal, and its impacts on the conservation of the hippo were assessed within and in the surrounding areas of Dhidhessa Wildlife Sanctuary, southwestern Ethiopia. A total of 227 households were used as a data sources, participating in the questionnaire survey, focus group discussion and key informant interviews. Direct field observations were also used as key data source. Crop raiding and damage (63%, n = 143), was the most severely reported source of conflict, followed by direct human attack (22.9%, n = 52). Livestock predation and increased hippo mortality were also common types of HHC in the area. According to the study, the majority of respondents (74.4%, n = 169) agreed that the trend of conflict was increasing, while 16.7% (n = 38) argued that there was no change. Food scarcities in the buffer zone, as well as agricultural expansion in the area, have been identified as major drivers of HHC. The majority of respondents had a negative attitude toward hippo conservation; however, there were differences based on gender, age, and educational level. The major traditional hippo conflict mitigation strategies in the area include guarding, fencing, and trenching. Field observation revealed that a large extent of the former grazing and ranging areas of hippo in the area are heavily encroached and taken over by large private and public agricultural investments. Vacating and recovering at least the former buffer areas dedicated to the wildlife in the area and modern, non-lethal mitigation strategies are recommended for better conservation and safeguarding of the currently good-sized hippo population of the sanctuary.

Conflict between cattle ranching and the conservation of jaguar (Panthera onca) and puma (Puma concolor) in the Amazon arc of deforestation.

Livestock predation constitutes the primary source of conflict between humans and large carnivores. Moreover, human factors, such as attitudes and emotions, can affect people's tolerance towards carnivores, exacerbating the conflict. Such conflicts often lead to retaliatory killing of carnivores, which not only poses significant threats to species conservation but also to ecosystem functioning and services. Therefore, mitigating human-carnivore conflicts is essential to promote both species conservation and human well-being. Here, we studied the conflict between extensive cattle ranching and the conservation of jaguars (Panthera onca) and pumas (Puma concolor) in 129 ranches located in the Amazon arc of deforestation. We interviewed ranchers about livestock management procedures, livestock mortality, approaches to reduce predation in the area, and attitudes regarding carnivores and conservation. Our results revealed that ranchers did not perceive carnivore attacks as the primary cause of cattle mortality. However, they exhibited a significant lack of tolerance towards these incidents, partially explained by economic reasons. They also showed negative attitudes towards big cats, which were mainly associated with social factors, such as low educational background. As a consequence, jaguar and puma were frequently killed in retaliation. Ranches showed different vulnerability to attacks depending on cattle management (cattle density, calves) and landscape (forest cover inside the ranch, distance to national parks). Our findings suggest that the conflict between cattle ranching and big cats conservation in the Amazon deforestation frontier is trigger by livestock predation, but perpetuated by limited knowledge about carnivores, the lack of support from the government to mitigate livestock losses, and the perception that conservation laws conditioned the viability of cattle ranching. Forthcoming mitigation strategies should focus on interventions designed to increase people's tolerance towards jaguars and pumas (e.g. improving knowledge about ecosystem services provided by large carnivores).

Livestock Depredation and Pastoralist Attitudes towards Carnivore in the Landscape of Lions Associated with Gambella National Park, Abobo District, Western Ethiopia

The livelihoods of individuals in Ethiopia are severely affected by the livestock depredation from wild animals. The main objective of this study is to assess the incidences of livestock predation and pastoralist attitudes towards carnivore in the landscape of lions associated with Gambella National Park in the Abobo district of Western Ethiopia. The study was conducted between September 2017 and May 2018, utilizing a pretested semistructured questionnaire. Data analysis involved the utilization of multiple response analysis, Chi square test, Cramer’s V and Cohen’s Omega, Potential for Conflict Index2, and multinomial regression analysis. Anubis baboon (29.1%), leopard (20.5%), hyena (19.3%), lions (18.6%), and common fox (12.4%) were responsible for depriving cattle, sheep/goat, and fowls. The chi‐square test, along with Cramer’s V and Cohen’s Omega, indicated a relatively smaller effect size for the anubis baboon (ω = 0.220) and the common fox (ω = 0.164), implying a consistent trend of livestock depredation across villages. In contrast, medium effect size for leopards (ω = 0.466), hyenas (ω = 0.449), and lions (ω = 0.324) indicated that livestock depredation across villages was moderately inconsistent. In terms of preventive measures, barns and active guarding were reported options to protect their livestock, with a small effect size (ω = 0.257). Moreover, increased trend of livestock predation was perceived by informants with small effect size (ω = 0.227). Many respondents expressed a negative attitude (73.51%) towards wild animals than positive (8.60%) and neutral (17.90%) attitudes with a small effect size (ω = 0.181). The Potential for Conflict Index2revealed a low consensus for acceptance of livestock depredation by different predators and skewed responses indicating the predominance of negative attitudes, regardless of livestock losses to predators. The regression model revealed that sociodemographic elements such as age, education, and occupation influence people’s attitude. Hence, sustainable and culturally acceptable conservation measures are required to mitigate human‐wildlife​ conflict.

Population Density of Wild Animals and Their Conflict in Konasa_Pulasa Community Conserved Forest, Omo Valley, Southern Ethiopia

Human-wildlife conflict presents an increasing challenge to conservation, particularly in densely populated parts of low-income countries. An investigation on wild animal population density and its conflict was carried out from December 2019 to May 2020 in the Konasa_Pulasa Community Conserved Forest, Omo Valley, Southern Ethiopia: implications for wildlife conservation. The distance sampling method was used to estimate the population status of wild animals in an area of 187.57 km2. Human-wild animal conflict was quantified using a questionnaire survey with 290 randomly selected household heads from five villages. In addition, focus group discussions were conducted to obtain additional information. The mean density of the Anubis baboons was 4.51 ± 0.76, that of the grivet monkeys was 3.24 ± 0.51, that of the porcupines was 0.89 ± 0.17, that of the spotted hyenas was 0.58 ± 0.15, and that of the black-backed jackals was 0.65 ± 0.12 individuals/km2. The result shows that crop damage and livestock predation were common problems in the study area. The most damaged cereal crops were maize (26.5%). The Anubis baboon was the most common crop raiding species (34.9%). An estimated average loss of different crop types was US$15.01 per year per household. Regarding livestock, sheep (36.2%) and poultry (44.3%) were the animals most attacked. The predator responsible for livestock depredation reported most frequently was the spotted hyena (35%), followed by the black-backed jackal (24%) and the leopard (16%), and it was responsible for the loss of 271 domestic animals with an estimated economic loss of US $24,395.92 in five villages. Guarding (47.4%) was the main means of mitigation methods. Most farmers’ (47.4%) attitude towards wild animal conservation was positive. The extent of the damage varied between villages and with the distance from the forest boundary. Local people close to the forest boundaries were highly vulnerable to wild animal conflict. Our results show that livestock predation and crop damage were common problems caused by Anubis baboon, verves monkeys, porcupines, spotted hyenas, and black-backed jackals. The increase in the population of wild animals and the proximity to the forest are the causes of HWC. Guarding is the dominant traditional method used to reduce HWC in the study area. Using effective methods to reduce livestock damage and loss to crops, including improved livestock husbandry, cultivating unpalatable crops near the forest and raising local community awareness could make local residents aware of conservation.

Coexisting with carnivores: insights into local attitudes toward African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) in the Maasai Mara, Kenya

ABSTRACT Coexistence between humans and carnivores enables the persistence or recovery of wildlife populations. In 2018, we conducted a survey in Kenya’s Greater Mara Ecosystem to explore community attitudes toward the reestablishment of African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) following their regional disappearance. Analyzing data from 60 households, we found that proximity to protected areas, land lease to conservancies, and risk perception significantly influenced people’s tolerance of African wild dogs, as revealed by Generalized Linear Models. Notably, there were no instances of human attacks and 78% of respondents had not experienced livestock predation, indicating positive coexistence. Among those perceiving a risk, 37 out of 46 recognized livestock predation only occurred when livestock were unguarded during the day. These findings highlight the potential for coexistence and species recovery in this mixed-use landscape, emphasizing the importance of effective conservation education, livestock management, and economic incentives.