Livestock Predation Research Articles

Landscape predictors influencing livestock depredation by leopards in and around Annapurna Conservation Area, Nepal.

Livestock depredation by leopards is a pervasive issue across many Asian and African range countries, particularly in and around protected areas. Developing effective conflict mitigation strategies requires understanding the landscape features influencing livestock depredation. In this study, we investigated predictors associated with livestock depredation by leopards using 274 cases of leopard attacks on livestock that occurred between 2017 and 2020 in the Annapurna Conservation Area, Nepal. We also examined how livestock predation by leopards varied depending on the species, season, and time. A generalized linear model with binary logistic regression was used to test the statistical significance of variables associated with the presence and absence of conflict sites. The results revealed that the area of forest, agricultural land, length of rivers, slope, proximity to settlements and protected areas, and elevation significantly predicted the probability of leopard attacks on livestock. We also observed a significant increase in the incidence of leopard predation on livestock with decreasing slopes and rising elevations. The areas near human settlements and the protected areas faced a higher risk of leopard predation. The incidence of leopard predation on livestock varied significantly depending on the livestock species, season, and time. Goats were the most highly predated livestock, followed by sheep, cow/ox, and buffalo. A total of 289.11 km2 (or around 5% of the research area) was deemed to be at high risk for leopard predation on livestock. This study's comprehensive understanding of human-leopard conflicts provides valuable insights for planning and implementing measures to reduce damage caused by leopard populations throughout their range.

A review of the human wildlife conflicts around the Nairobi National Park, Kenya

Human-wildlife conflicts are one of the most important challenges facing wildlife conservation. In Kenya, the Nairobi National Park (NNP) experiences various pressures due to its small size and close proximity to an expanding city. The unfenced southern part of the park is the main hotspot for conflicts. For the review a content analysis of 21 publications related to NNP published between 2011 and 2022 was conducted to identify the causes, types and the mitigation measures of conflicts around the park. Documents for the analysis were collected through Google Scholar, Web of Science and Scopus. Our results indicate that livestock predation linked to lions is the major type of conflict superseded by retaliatory killings of the carnivores by the local communities. Other conflicts include crop raids by ungulates and the spread of diseases especially the East Coast fever that is transmitted from the wildebeest to livestock. Findings further reveal that one of the main causes of the conflicts is the expanding human population, which has encroached on wildlife dispersal corridors. It resulted in land subdivision and fencing of the farms as farmers try to protect their livestock from wildlife. This has greatly impeded wildlife migration. Mitigation methods in place include compensation schemes and landowners leasing their farms to the park management so that the corridors can be left open for free wildlife movement. These have however been inadequate therefore there is still a need to find sustainable mitigation measures that ensure coexistence between humans and wildlife in and around NNP.

Human-Wildlife Conflict and Coexistence

Man-animal conflict is a very complex issue which not only involves disruption of forest ecosystem but also a very weak legal support system while establishing wildlife corridors in the protected areas. Developmental projects have also taken a heavy toll on the very existence of wildlife and its symbiotic relationship with the forest ecosystem. The most common causes of human-wildlife conflict are livestock predation, crop raiding, loss of human life, animal death, damage to property, and injuries to people and wildlife. There are some valid reasons for increased man-animal conflicts in the recent past and they are changes in land use patterns (change from protected forest patches to agricultural, horticultural, and monoculture plantations) which destroy wildlife, livestock grazing, unscientific structures and practices of forest management in the country, allowing cattle to graze into forest areas and decreased prey base caused by poaching of herbivores leading to carnivores wandering out of forests in search of prey to indulge in cattle lifting and preying on human children.

Lion Localizer: A software tool for inferring the provenance of lions (Panthera leo) using mitochondrial DNA.

The illegal poaching of lions for their body parts poses a severe threat to lion populations across Africa. Poaching accounts for 35% of all human-caused lion deaths, with 51% attributed to retaliatory killings following livestock predation. In nearly half of the retaliatory killings, lion body parts are removed, suggesting that high demand for lion body parts may fuel killings attributed to human-lion conflict. Trafficked items are often confiscated in transit or destination countries far from their country of origin. DNA from lion parts may in some cases be the only available means for examining their geographic origins. In this paper, we present the Lion Localizer, a full-stack software tool that houses a comprehensive database of lion mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequences sourced from previously published studies. The database covers 146 localities from across the African continent and India, providing information on the potential provenance of seized lion body parts. Lion mtDNA sequences of 350 or 1,140 bp corresponding to the cytochrome b region can be generated from lion products and queried against the Lion Localizer database. Using the query sequence, the Lion Localizer generates a listing of exact or partial matches, which are displayed on an interactive map of Africa. This allows for the rapid identification of potential regions and localities where lions have been or are presently being targeted by poachers. By examining the potential provenance of lion samples, the Lion Localizer serves as a valuable resource in the fight against lion poaching. The software is available at https://lionlocalizer.org.

Dog in sheep’s clothing: livestock depredation by free-ranging dogs may pose new challenges to wolf conservation

Livestock depredation is a common cause of human-carnivore conflicts. In Portugal, free-ranging dogs are increasingly abundant and overlap endangered Iberian wolf territories, with reports of livestock depredation. However, the lack of awareness about dogs’ possible role as predators leads to bias against wolves in cases of damages. Our goal was to assess and compare wolf and free-ranging dog’s diet composition at southern wolf range in Portugal, to offer insights on dogs’ predatory role on livestock and its implications for the conservation of an endangered wolf subpopulation. We assessed diet composition from 107 to 95 genetically confirmed wolf and dog scats, respectively, and complemented the analysis with data from 40 attacks on livestock with successful genetic predator assignment. Scat analysis highlighted goats as the most consumed dog prey in all analysed regions, with lagomorphs, small mammals, and wild boars as second most consumed in each region, respectively. Wolves mainly relied on goats and wild boars in the west, whereas in the central region they mostly fed on birds. The dietary overlap between both canids was very high (Pianka’s index O = 0.93), showing potential for competition. Additionally, we found that dogs were the sole predators detected in most attacks (62%). Our findings highlight dogs’ role as predators of livestock, and possibly also wild species, posing a further challenge to wolf conservation. Alongside adequate husbandry practices, we emphasise the need for a stronger enforcement of the legislation on dog ownership and an effective management of the stray population to reduce human-wolf conflict.

Co-occurrence of black-backed jackal and caracal in the Karoo, South Africa

Livestock production in drylands has greatly altered ecosystem level processes, including the interactions between sympatric species. Management of livestock predation on farms requires an acute understanding of predator species' ecology, including their intraguild interactions. In this study, we used camera trapping to investigate black-backed jackal (Lupulella mesomelas) and caracal (Caracal) spatiotemporal overlap on different land-uses (viz., public and private protected areas, and a neighbouring group of small-livestock farms) in the Karoo, South Africa. We also used questionnaires to understand how local small-livestock farmers perceive factors influencing changes in the abundance of black-backed jackal and caracal and the trophic relationship between them. Black-backed jackal and caracal spatiotemporal overlap was high, largely independent of land-use, and positively influenced by the presence of the other species. Black-backed jackal had higher overall occurrence than caracal, and caracal were more likely to occur on farmland than either protected area. Farmers acknowledged that mesopredators may benefit from the absence of apex predators on farmlands and that black-backed jackal populations had increased more than caracal in recent times. However, farmers were less certain as to how mesopredators interact, whether they suppress one another and how their interactions may influence the perceived increase in both species’ abundance.

Food habits and characteristics of livestock depredation by leopard (Panthera pardus fusca) in human dominated landscape of South Gujarat, India

Information on essential resource requirements and characteristics of livestock predation is crucial for formulating a better conservation strategy for leopards in a human-dominated landscape. We assessed food habits and characteristics of livestock predation in the human-dominated landscape of South Gujarat, India, using scat analysis (n = 350) and secondary information from forest department reports (n = 780). Leopards consumed 17 prey species, with pigs contributing the most (44%) to the leopards’ diet, while domestic horses contributed the least (1%). Leopards preyed upon four domestic species: goats (47%), cows (43%), buffaloes (6%), and horses (2%). Young individuals of livestock were most commonly targeted by leopards, and livestock species were predominantly preyed upon during the evening or night time. Livestock were most vulnerable to predation when tied in open areas and least vulnerable while grazing. Our results highlight the significant role of pigs as the main prey and their contribution to mitigating livestock predation. Additionally, improving cattle shed structures and implementing night guarding could help reduce livestock predation. This study also addresses the knowledge gap regarding leopard ecology in human-dominated landscapes.

Interference competition driven by co‐occurrence with tigers Panthera tigris may increase livestock predation by leopards Panthera pardus: a first step meta‐analysis

Abstract In coexisting carnivorans (Carnivora) relying on the same food resources, the dominant species imposes a cost on the inferior competitor by limiting its foraging ability. Tigers Panthera tigris and leopards Panthera pardus live in sympatry in most Asian countries and, because of their similar trophic niche, ‘interference competition’ may exist between these two predators. In fact, since tigers generally occupy prime habitats, leopards could be forced to roam into peripheral areas that are heavily used by humans to avoid competition, consequently increasing the risk of human‐leopard conflicts. Using information collected from the reviewed scientific literature, the purposes of this work were: 1) to assess if livestock predation by leopards increases in areas of coexistence with tigers, and 2) to characterise leopard attacks on livestock to discern the main factors involved in the human‐leopard conflict. Our findings showed that the leopard's ‘overall’ livestock predation rate (i.e. individuals taken/year) was higher in the absence of tigers than in their presence, and the same was observed for the ‘sheep and goat’ predation rate. These results confirm the leopard's tendency to take livestock and, especially, smaller prey. Conversely, the ‘cattle’ and ‘other’ predation rates were higher in the presence of tigers than in their absence, suggesting the existence of a sort of spatial segregation between predators in certain contexts. Lower levels of predation by leopards were observed on farms in which more prevention measures were used, than in those in which only one measure was implemented. We stress the importance of using proper prevention measures to mitigate human‐leopard conflicts. However, because their implementation may not be easy or economically feasible, the financial support given by carnivoran‐policy makers assumes remarkable importance to minimise the economic impact on local families and, in turn, to foster the coexistence between leopards and humans in shared landscapes.

What drives prey selection? Assessment of Tiger (Panthera tigris) food habits across the Terai-Arc Landscape, India

Abstract Large carnivores strongly shape ecological interactions within their respective ecosystems, but experience significant conflicts with humans across their range due to their specific ecological resource requirements. The Tiger (Panthera tigris) typifies the challenges faced by large carnivore species globally. India retains the majority of the global Tiger population with a substantial number occurring outside protected areas where they are prone to conflict through livestock predation and injury or death to people and Tigers. Tiger food habits was investigated across the Indian part of the Terai-Arc Landscape (TAL), a globally important Tiger conservation landscape, to understand Tiger prey selection patterns and hotspots of livestock predation-related conflict. 510 genetically confirmed Tiger feces were collected across the landscape and 10 wild ungulates and livestock as prey species were identified. Large-bodied species (Sambar, Swamp Deer, Nilgai, Chital, Wild Pig, and livestock) comprised ~94% of the diet, with Sambar, Chital, and livestock having the highest relative proportions. Habitat-specific (Shivalik-Bhabar and Terai) analyses indicate that prey selection is driven by prey abundance and body weight but not determined by protection status (protected areas vs non-protected areas). Results also suggest that PAs and non-PAs in the Terai region were more prone to livestock predation-related conflict. Careful management interventions with community involvement should be utilized to reduce such threats. In this study, we suggest long-term conservation plans including prey abundance estimation outside PAs, reduction of grazing pressures, and detailed records of Tiger mortalities with causal investigations to ensure future conflict-free Tiger persistence across TAL.

An ensemble modeling approach to predict spatial risk patches of the Persian leopard-livestock conflicts in Lorestan Province, Iran.

This study was conducted in the Lorestan Province in the west of Iran with two objectives of identifying major environmental variables in spatial risk modeling and identifying spatial risk patches of livestock predation by the Persian leopard. An ensemble approach of three models of maximum entropy (MaxEnt), generalized boosting model (GBM), and random forest (RF) were applied for spatial risk modeling. Our results revealed that livestock density, distance to villages, forest density, and human population density were the most important variables in spatial risk modeling of livestock predation by the leopard. The center of the study area had the highest probability of livestock predation by the leopard. Ten spatial risk patches of livestock predation by the leopard were identified in the study area. In order to mitigate the revenge killing of the leopards, the findings of this study highlight the imperative of implementing strategies by the Department of Environment (DoE) to effectively accompany the herds entering the wildlife habitats with shepherds and a manageable number of guarding dogs. Accordingly, the identified risk patches in this study deserve considerable attention, especially three primary patches found in the center and southeast of Lorestan Province.

Wolf (Canis lupus) Predation in Pastoral Livestock Systems: Case Study in Croatia

The predation of livestock by gray wolf (Canis lupus; hereafter, wolf) is a problem throughout eastern Europe and poses a threat to sustainable pasture-based livestock production in some areas. In Croatia, farmers have alarmed the public with news of frequent wolf attacks in the last decade, and wolves, as protected animals, are perceived as a pest and a threat. The aim of this study was to analyze and present the frequency of attacks and killed/injured domestic animals in Croatia. During the ten-year period (2010–2020), 13,359 attack events were reported, where it was determined, with certainty, that the attack was by the wolf. In these attacks, 19,111 domestic animals were killed and 4634 were injured. Predation events occurred predominantly (92.71%) in three counties located in southern Croatia (sub-Mediterranean Croatia), whose total area is 11,170 km2 (19.74% of the total area of Croatia). The most frequently killed species were sheep (64.78% of all killed animals), which was followed by goats (19.28%) and cattle (9.59%). The highest frequency of attacks and animals killed was recorded in the summer followed by spring and autumn, and the lowest was in winter. The majority of attacks (79.57%) occurred in the morning and during the day. The animal with the highest average number killed per attack was sheep (1.64), which was followed by goats (1.38), cattle (0.99), horses (0.94), donkeys (0.95), and guardian dogs (0.92). During the studied period, in the three counties with the most frequent attacks, 11.72% of the average goat population, 6.34% of the cattle population, and 5.61% of the sheep population were killed. Wolf predation in sub-Mediterranean Croatia presents a threat to the population of domestic ruminants dominantly kept in pastoral livestock systems, and additional efforts need to be made to achieve co-existence between the wolf population and farmers.

Protection of Farms from Wolf Predation: A Field Approach

The livestock sector is facing serious challenges in combatting the increasing predation of domestic livestock. In this scenario, wild carnivores, especially wolves, represent key predators. To allow the coexistence of wild and domestic animals, defense methodologies consisting of multiple integrated antipredator strategies must be tested and implemented based on the geographical management context of each farm. This study investigated the potential of a novel antipredator method (PAN, Project Farmers-Nature in Italian) in protecting livestock (goats and horses) from wolves on a farm located in the Sibillini Mountains National Park, over a three-month period (June–September 2022). The PAN field approach involved two phases: (1) interviews with farmers and inspections of how the farm and pasture are structured and (2) monitoring predator abundance using camera traps and transects in order to understand the wildlife habits. Information on predator movement around the grazing area was shared with the farmer, who was actively involved in implementing strategies to protect livestock. The stable presence of one pair of wolves was confirmed in the grazing area, placing grazing livestock at risk. The farmer was advised to strengthen the existing antipredator strategy (herd protection dogs) by introducing two trained Maremma-Abruzzese sheepdog puppies to protect his animals. The implemented actions demonstrate how professional experts can serve as a strategic intermediary between livestock and wildlife conservation in the management of the current conflicts.

Attention matters: A preliminary assessment of ranchers’ attitudes towards big cats in Costa Rica

Good conservation strategies that include direct attention towards the affected people can promote positive attitudes to wildlife and its conservation. We assessed how the attention from wildlife authorities and non-profit institutions affects ranchers' attitudes towards jaguars and pumas in Northern Costa Rica. Our sample was divided into ranchers with livestock predation issues who received institutional attention, ranchers with predation issues who did not receive any attention, and ranchers without livestock predation incidents. The attention received was self-reported by the respondents. We applied a 10-item Likert scaled test used previously to assess attitudes toward big felids in South Africa. We looked for spatial patterns of segregation of attitudes to determine areas that need special attention. Ranchers who receive no institutional attention had the most negative attitude score, –1.77 (IC 95%: –4.19 – 0.64). Ranchers with a positive attitude were geographically closer to each other than to the other ranchers (S = 0.32). Although preliminary, our findings suggest that institutional attention can be positively related to attitudes held by ranchers toward big cats.

Successful conditioned taste aversion in jaguars

Chemical induction of a conditioned taste aversion (CTA) has been successfully tested since 1976 on a variety of predators, yet its adoption as an anti-predation tool is still undeveloped. In this paper we describe the results of the application of CTA on six captive jaguars (Panthera onca) using Thiabendazole (TBZ). Jaguars are considered endangered in Mexico but are illegally killed by ranchers in retaliatory reactions to real or perceived livestock predation. Hence, CTA could potentially provide an important tool to reduce livestock predation and protect jaguars. Between 2015 and 2016, we used TBZ in meat baits for six captive jaguars. We mixed a dose of 400 mg/kg of TBZ in a prepared bait using ground meat wrapped in the skin of selected domestic species. TBZ induced a conditioned taste aversion in all treated jaguars. Additionally, we report on two treated free-ranging known calf-killing and dog-killing jaguars who displayed a spatial avoidance after being treated. We suggest further trials be conducted in the wild with GPS collared animals. Properly applied, TBZ may become a useful tool to mitigate predator-livestock-human conflict, especially for endangered species.

Integrating robotics into wildlife conservation: testing improvements to predator deterrents through movement.

Agricultural and pastoral landscapes can provide important habitat for wildlife conservation, but sharing these landscapes with wildlife can create conflict that is costly and requires managing. Livestock predation is a good example of the challenges involving coexistence with wildlife across shared landscapes. Integrating new technology into agricultural practices could help minimize human-wildlife conflict. In this study, we used concepts from the fields of robotics (i.e., automated movement and adaptiveness) and agricultural practices (i.e., managing livestock risk to predation) to explore how integration of these concepts could aid the development of more effective predator deterrents. We used a colony of captive coyotes as a model system, and simulated predation events with meat baits inside and outside of protected zones. Inside the protected zones we used a remote-controlled vehicle with a state-of-the art, commercially available predator deterrent (i.e., Foxlight) mounted on the top and used this to test three treatments: (1) light only (i.e., without movement or adaptiveness), (2) predetermined movement (i.e., with movement and without adaptiveness), and (3) adaptive movement (i.e., with both movement and adaptiveness). We measured the time it took for coyotes to eat the baits and analyzed the data with a time-to-event survival strategy. Survival of baits was consistently higher inside the protected zone, and the three movement treatments incrementally increased survival time over baseline except for the light only treatment in the nonprotected zone. Incorporating predetermined movement essentially doubled the efficacy of the light only treatment both inside and outside the protected zone. Incorporating adaptive movement exponentially increased survival time both inside and outside the protected zone. Our findings provide compelling evidence that incorporating existing robotics capabilities (predetermined and adaptive movement) could greatly enhance protection of agricultural resources and aid in the development of nonlethal tools for managing wildlife. Our findings also demonstrate the importance of marrying agricultural practices (e.g., spatial management of livestock at night) with new technology to improve the efficacy of wildlife deterrents.

Spatio-Temporal Patterns of Livestock Predation by Leopards in Bardia National Park, Nepal

Human–wildlife conflict is a challenging issue that requires the attention of conservationists worldwide. Habitat fragmentation and encroachment reduce the abundance of prey species, and an increase in the number of predators leads to a higher risk of conflict with large cats such as leopards, jeopardizing conservation efforts. This study explored the spatio-temporal pattern of the human–leopard conflict in Bardia National Park, Nepal, from 2000 to 2020. To analyze the conflict with leopards, we used data (compensation cases filed in the park) from the buffer zone management office, the National Trust for Nature Conservation (NTNC), and the Department of National Park and Wildlife Conservation (DNPWC). Leopard attacks on livestock are increasing exponentially, with 3335 livestock killed in 2652 attacks occurring during the study period. Although livestock depredation by leopards occurred all over the park, the southern cluster has most documented livestock damage (64.01%). The eastern and northern clusters reported fluctuating and dispersed predation events, respectively. Our spatial analysis indicated no effect of topography (slope) on livestock depredation by leopards. We recorded the highest number of leopard attacks and predation during the dry winter season when the nights are longer and livestock remain in their sheds. This carnivore mostly limited its prey to small-sized livestock (95.77%) such as goats, sheep, and pigs, whereas attacks on large-sized (cow and buffalo) livestock were least frequent. Among small-sized livestock, goats are the most predated (66.92%), followed by pigs (20.30%), in all seasons. The escalating human–leopard conflict in BNP is thus a severe threat to conservation efforts as the park has already invested a substantial amount of money (approx. USD 80,000) compensating for livestock lost in leopard attacks over the last two decades. Improving habitat conditions to reduce competition inside the park, developing an insurance scheme for livestock and humans, providing support for upgraded sheds, and the development of practical and feasible strategies that focus on specific animals and clusters of the national park are needed to reduce conflicts to maintain the co-existence between wildlife and human beings.

Livestock producers' perceptions of the American black vulture conflict in the midwestern United States

AbstractHuman‐wildlife interactions are present wherever both humans and wildlife are found. Interactions can be positive or negative for humans and can include impacts that range from damage to property, agriculture, health and human safety, to emotional effects. Livestock‐wildlife interactions form a major component of human‐wildlife conflicts with foci often centered on the implications of livestock predation by wildlife. While most vulture species are obligate scavengers, several species, including the American black vulture (Coragyps atratus), may attack weak or newborn livestock. Black vulture populations and distributions are expanding in the Midwestern U.S., and attacks create a novel problem for livestock producers. We used online and printed surveys to determine the experiences and perceived losses of producers in Indiana and Kentucky. Surveys were distributed March–July 2021. Losses to black vultures were reported by 22% of goat producers, 24% of sheep producers, 38% of cattle producers, and 44% of mixed‐livestock producers. The criteria used to determine a perceived predation event were presence of vultures on the carcass, followed by missing eyes or tongue, damage to the perineal area, reported visual observation of the kill, or presence of feathers around the carcass. Sixty‐two percent of livestock producers employed at least one mitigation technique. Common mitigation techniques included the removal of carcasses and afterbirth, followed by nonlethal harassment of vultures, modifying farm management practices, use of guard animals, lethal control, and use of effigies. With the exception of nonlethal harassment, all mitigation techniques were rated as being effective by the majority of respondents. Fifty‐three percent of respondents indicated a willingness to acquire a lethal control permit from the federal government, 70% from the state government, and 56% from the state Farm Bureau, assuming the permit was free. We found that perceived losses to black vultures generally did not exceed losses to other causes and varied widely with livestock species and age class. For cattle producers, mitigation employment and vulture sightings during the calving seasons best predicted reported predation by black vultures. For mixed livestock producers, vulture sightings during the birthing season and losses to causes other than black vultures best predicted producers reporting predation by black vultures. Our results quantify producer perceptions of conflict between livestock producers and black vultures in the Midwestern U.S. Our results can be used to develop strategies to address growing conflicts between black vultures and livestock producers.

Perspective: Why might removing carnivores maintain or increase risks for domestic animals?

Human-carnivore conflict is still characterized by lethal control, even while some evidence suggests that carnivore removal may not affect the likelihood of future livestock predation, or that it may even exacerbate the problem. Here we propose five non-exclusive, and likely additive, hypotheses for why lethal removals could fail to mitigate livestock-carnivore conflict. We also propose a methodological change in the scale of conflict analyses from populations to smaller social networks, and encourage public education that includes discussions about the potential consequences for communities with livestock following the killing of carnivores, in addition to broader outreach about both the costs and benefits of living with carnivores.

Do we need to unfriend a few friends? Free‐ranging dogs affect wildlife and pastoralists in the Indian Trans‐Himalaya

AbstractDogs Canis lupus familiaris, among canids, have emerged as the most successful predators and facultative scavengers, and have prevented other carnivores from approaching human habitats through intraguild competition. Over time with increasing population and livestock predation, they have become a matter of concern for pastoralists. The present study was conducted to understand the patterns of free‐ranging dogs' predation on livestock and wildlife, from 2015 to 2017 in Changthang Wildlife Sanctuary (CWLS), Ladakh, India. Information was collected on (a) dog populations in 10 sites using polygon search in Spatially Explicit Capture‐Recapture framework and block count, (b) their diet using scat analysis (n = 205) and (c) perceptions of pastoralists towards dogs through questionnaire‐based interviews (n = 210). Dog densities varied between 10 and 310 individuals/100 km2 and were high in and around human habitations. A major part of their diet constituted of livestock (74.29%) and wild species (13.06%). Among wild prey species, birds (4.49%), lagomorphs (3.67%), rodents (2.45%) and Tibetan wild ass (1.63%) had high occurrence in dog diet. The local people admitted that dogs pose a threat to livestock and wildlife. As unowned free‐ranging dogs harm livestock and wildlife, about 40% of the respondents had negative perceptions towards them. The perception varied with occupation and pastoralists were more negative than non‐pastoralists (P < 0.001). We suggest that effective mechanisms need to be identified or developed to manage dog populations in ecologically and economically sensitive areas to minimise the threats and safeguard the endangered wildlife and local livelihoods.

Twenty years of lion conservation in a commercial rangeland

Lion populations in Africa declined precipitously in the twentieth century outside of protected areas but the commercial cattle ranches of Laikipia County, Kenya, have been a unique exception, with low livestock stocking rates, careful range management, large populations of wild ungulates, and a full complement of large carnivores, including lions at a stable density of about 6/100 km2. The Laikipia Predator Project, later Living With Lions, started in 1997 with two primary objectives: improving livestock husbandry to reduce lion predation losses and subsequent killing of lions, and studying behavioral adaptations of lions to human activities and persecution. We initially interviewed ranch owners and managers on lion numbers, losses to all mortality factors, husbandry methods, costs, and lion control measures. Studies of husbandry and control methods led to improved livestock management, which gradually reduced losses and retaliatory lion killing. Persecuted lions are secretive and nocturnal, so behavioral research was dependent upon radio collaring, requiring development an effective capture technique. Collars introduced ranchers to their lions as individuals, decreasing their propensity to shoot them after livestock predation. The most important breakthrough was the development of “lion-proof” mobile bomas (corrals) which dramatically reduced night time losses and retaliatory killing. Global positioning system (GPS)-Iridium collars for research into lion movements, allowed development of a Lion Early Warning System to inform ranchers of morning lion locations, allowing them to avoid lions during day time grazing. These measures reduced retaliatory lion killing by 90% between 1998 and 2017. Development of simple and inexpensive hyena-proof bomas for traditional pastoralists dramatically reduced their losses and motivation to poison predators. Studies of lion movements and ecological energetics in relation to human activities have revealed patterns of diel avoidance of humans/livestock by day and predation of wild prey near bomas at night, showing that lions partition their activities temporally in order to utilize high quality hunting habitat while minimizing risk of encountering humans. Studies of predation ecology suggest that lion predation does not have a significant impact on Laikipia’s important population of endangered Grevy’s zebra. Several other carnivore research and conservation projects in Kenya arose out of the initial work in Laikipia.