Pre-competition Training Research Articles

Exercise-related leg pain and risk factors in inter university distance runners

Context: Understanding the concept of prevalence and risk factors of exercise-related leg pain (ERLP) in distance runners. Aims: To find out the prevalence and in the seasonal incidence of ERLP in inter university distance runners. To investigate risk factors for developing ERLP. Settings and Design: The present cross-sectional study conducted at the track and field in Guru Nanak Dev University and other universities in Punjab. Materials and Methods: A total 70 athletes (40 male, 30 female) were participated voluntarily. Precompetitive demographic, basic anthropometric, training parameters and ERLP history data were collected from the initial questionnaire. Foot type and plantar flexor endurance were measured from each individual using navicular drop test, standard heel raise test, and runners were tracked throughout the session to note the percentage of in seasonal ERLP. Statistical Analysis Used: Chi-square and odds ratio was applied to find out the risk factors of ERLP. Results: Overall 48.57% male and 37.14% female athletes had a history of ERLP and 14.2% athletes did not have any history of ERLP out of 70 athletes. Among them 81.4% (57) athletes completed postseasonal questionnaire, out of 57 athlete's 42.1% (24) male and 28% (16) female athletes developed in seasonal ERLP, bilateral lower leg pain was the most common presentation. There was a significant difference seen between ERLP history (1-month) and body mass index (BMI) within seasonal ERLP (P < 0.02), (P < 0.04), as compared to 6 and 12 month history of ERLP. Conclusions: The results of the present study conclude that BMI and ERLP history (1-month) was the only risk factor for in the seasonal development of ERLP in distance runners.

Salivary Hormones Response to Preparation and Pre-competitive Training of World-class Level Athletes.

This study aimed to compare the response of salivary hormones of track and field athletes induced by preparation and pre-competitive training periods in an attempt to comment on the physiological effects consistent with the responses of each of the proteins measured. Salivary testosterone, cortisol, alpha-amylase, immunoglobulin A (IgA), chromogranin A, blood creatine kinase activity, and profile of mood state were assessed at rest in 24 world-class level athletes during preparation (3 times in 3 months) and pre-competitive (5 times in 5 weeks) training periods. Total mood disturbance and fatigue perception were reduced, while IgA (+61%) and creatine kinase activity (+43%) increased, and chromogranin A decreased (−27%) during pre-competitive compared to preparation period. A significant increase in salivary testosterone (+9 to +15%) and a decrease in testosterone/cortisol ratio were associated with a progressive reduction in training load during pre-competitive period (P < 0.05). None of the psycho-physiological parameters were significantly correlated to training load during the pre-competitive period. Results showed a lower adrenocortical response and autonomic activity, and an improvement of immunity status, in response to the reduction in training load and fatigue, without significant correlations of salivary hormones with training load. Our findings suggest that saliva composition is sensitive to training contents (season period) but could not be related to workload resulting from track and field athletics training.

Elite Female Soccer Athletes Hormonal Response to a Pre Competitive Training Period

Elite Female Soccer Athletes Hormonal Response to a Pre Competitive Training Period

Russian

This study aims to assess the effect of Bilar, a product made from the honey bee drone larvae, on stationary and oscillatory characteristics of athletes’ microcirculation system. The study featured 54 athletes practicing judo. Data obtained before and after the course intake of the apiproduct testifies to the economicalness of the operation of the microcirculation system at rest, which is manifested in a decline in the perfusion and diffusion of oxygen from the blood to the tissues and its utilization by the tissues. The effectiveness of the use of the natural adaptogen was accompanied by an increase in neurogenic and myogenic vasodilatation. Incorporating Bilar into athletes’ diet at the pre-competition training cycle stage improves microhemodynamics, stimulates the utilization of oxygen from the blood to the tissues, and boosts microvessel reactivity, which expands the body’s adaptation/accustomization potential at the tissue level.

Tapering strategies in elite British endurance runners

The aim of the study was to explore pre-competition training practices of elite endurance runners. Training details from elite British middle distance (MD; 800 m and 1500 m), long distance (LD; 3000 m steeplechase to 10,000 m) and marathon (MAR) runners were collected by survey for 7 days in a regular training (RT) phase and throughout a pre-competition taper. Taper duration was [median (interquartile range)] 6 (3) days in MD, 6 (1) days in LD and 14 (8) days in MAR runners. Continuous running volume was reduced to 70 (16)%, 71 (24)% and 53 (12)% of regular levels in MD, LD and MAR runners, respectively (P < 0.05). Interval running volume was reduced compared to regular training (MD; 53 (45)%, LD; 67 (23)%, MAR; 64 (34)%, P < 0.05). During tapering, the peak interval training intensity was above race speed in LD and MAR runners (112 (27)% and 114 (3)%, respectively, P < 0.05), but not different in MD (100 (2)%). Higher weekly continuous running volume and frequency in RT were associated with greater corresponding reductions during the taper (R = −0.70 and R = −0.63, respectively, both P < 0.05). Running intensity during RT was positively associated with taper running intensity (continuous intensity; R = 0.97 and interval intensity; R = 0.81, both P < 0.05). Algorithms were generated to predict and potentially prescribe taper content based on the RT of elite runners. In conclusion, training undertaken prior to the taper in elite endurance runners is predictive of the tapering strategy implemented before competition.

Percepción subjetiva del esfuerzo en fútbol profesional: relevancia de los indicadores físicos y psicológicos en el entrenamiento y la competición

This study was undertaken to determine the relationship between the pre-competitive physical and psychological training sessions load, estimated by the training time, heart rate (HR) and the rate of perceived exertion (RPE), with the physical performance of players in the competitive match. To do this, in 21 professional players from the English Football Association Championship Division, HR, RPE, the training time and the specific training time in the high intensity zone were monitored during all the training sessions through all the 5 previous days before the match. It was also recorded the total distance covered and the total distance covered in the high intensity zone for each player in 22 official matches using the multi-camera computerised tracking system ProZone®. The results indicate that the RPE values correlate with the pre-competitive training volume and intensity, and therefore it is a valid tool to quantify the training load. However, within multiple variables involved in the competition, the RPE or the average HR data recorded during the pre-competitive training sessions do not seem to be variables that can predict the players´ conditional performance during the official matches.

The Effects of Tournament Preparation on Anthropometric and Sport-Specific Performance Measures in Youth Judo Athletes

The purpose of this study was to characterize the adaptations imposed by 4 weeks of precompetition judo training in youth athletes. It was hypothesized that anthropometric and sport-specific performance would improve during the preparation for a junior national championship event. Twenty youth athletes (mean ± SD; chronological age: 13.1 ± 3.2 years; training age: 5.3 ± 3.5 years; judo experience: 7.8 ± 2.5 hours per week) completed pretesting and posttesting procedures. Child (12 years old; n = 8) and adolescent (13 years old; n = 12) groups were evaluated to determine the anthropometric and sport-specific performance changes caused by 4 weeks of judo training conducted in preparation for the junior national championships. The child group showed an increase in flexibility (11.5%), and the adolescent group showed a decrease in skinfold thickness (-12.2%); increased jumping power (26.7%), force (7.7%), and velocity (19.0%); and improved judo-specific ability (-5.9%), as measured by the Special Judo Fitness Test (SJFT) index. Additionally, the SJFT index for all the study participants was shown to be inversely correlated to handgrip strength (r = -0.681), rope pull performance (r = -0.545), and jump height (r = -0.503). These results support the use of preparatory judo training in the improvement of anthropometric and sport-specific measures in adolescent athletes. Furthermore, the outcomes from this study provide direction for coaches and trainers in their efforts to impact physical performance and judo skills in children and adolescents through precompetition training.

The redox state of young female handball players following acute exercise and a one-month precompetitive training period

Although the relationship between exercise and oxidative stress has been intensively investigated for over 3 decades, there remains a lack of empirical data on exercise-induced oxidative stress in athletes engaged in sporting games, specifically among the population of elite female athletes. Blood samples were taken from female handball players on the Serbian U20 national team at the beginning and end of a one-month preparatory training period, as well as immediately before and after acute treadmill exercise. Levels of superoxide anion radical, hydrogen peroxide, nitric oxide and lipid peroxidation were measured in plasma samples , while levels of reduced glutathione and the activity of superoxide dismutase and catalase were measured in erythrocytes. Both experimental protocols demonstrated significant increases in plasma levels of hydrogen peroxide and decreases in superoxide dismutase activity in erythrocytes. Despite the increase in plasma levels of hydrogen peroxideafter both the treadmill exercise and the one-month training period, the levels of the two antioxidants responsible for eliminating H2O2 hydrogen peroxide were not significantly different, as may be expected. Moreover, the marker of lipid peroxidation, TBARS, was not significantly increased. These findings suggest that the first line of antioxidative defense was effective in the prevention of oxidative stress among young female handball players.

Rapid Weight Loss and the Body Fluid Balance and Hemoglobin Mass of Elite Amateur Boxers

Dehydration is assumed to be a major adverse effect associated with rapid loss of body mass for competing in a lower weight class in combat sports. However, the effects of such weight cutting on body fluid balance in a real-life setting are unknown. To examine the effects of 5% or greater loss of body mass within a few days before competition on body water, blood volume, and plasma volume in elite amateur boxers. Case-control study. Sports medicine laboratory. Seventeen male boxers (age = 19.2 ± 2.9 years, height = 175.1 ± 7.0 cm, mass = 65.6 ± 9.2 kg) were assigned to the weight-loss group (WLG; n = 10) or the control group (CON; n = 7). The WLG reduced body mass by restricting fluid and food and inducing excessive sweat loss by adhering to individual methods. The CON participated in their usual precompetition training. During an ordinary training period (t-1), 2 days before competition (t-2), and 1 week after competition (t-3), we performed bioelectrical impedance measurements; calculated total body water, intracellular water, and extracellular water; and estimated total hemoglobin mass (tHbmass), blood volume, and plasma volume by the CO-rebreathing method. In the WLG, the loss of body mass (5.6% ± 1.7%) led to decreases in total body water (6.0% ± 0.9%), extracellular water (12.4% ± 7.6%), tHbmass (5.3% ± 3.8%), blood volume (7.6% ± 2.1%; P < .001), and plasma volume (8.6% ± 3.9%). The intracellular water did not change (P > .05). At t-3, total body water, extracellular water, and plasma volume had returned to near baseline values, but tHbmass and blood volume still were less than baseline values (P < .05). In CON, we found no changes (P > .05). In a real-life setting, the loss of approximately 6% body mass within 5 days induced hypohydration, which became evident by the decreases in body water and plasma volume. The reduction in tHbmass was a surprising observation that needs further investigation.

Urine citrate and 6-sulfatoximelatonin excretion during a training season in top kayakers

The effects of high training loads during the competitive kayaking season may be reflected in urinary citrate and 6-sulfatoxymelatonin ((α)MT6S) excretion. The present study aims to evaluate the influence of a training program on citrate and (α)MT6S excretion in 12 elite kayakers. Urine samples were collected (before bedtime and again in the morning, at first voiding) at the beginning of the season (second half of October), during the macrocycle (specific training period; first week of June), and tapering (precompetitive training period; first week of July) stages. During the training season, urine citrate values (mg/L) were higher in the evening than in the morning in all stages (p<0.01). The data obtained in the evening showed the lowest significant values (p<0.05) in the beginning stage compared with the macrocycle and tapering stages. The values obtained in the morning showed the lowest significance (p<0.05) in the macrocycle stage compared to the beginning and the tapering stages. In all stages, (α)MT6S (ng/mL) evening values were significantly lower (p<0.05) than the morning values. The morning/evening ratio, total sum, and nocturnal increment of (α)MT6S did not vary across the training stages. From these results, it can be deduced that the pineal function is unaltered and that citrate turnover is good in elite kayakers during the training season. It was found that urine citrate and (α)MT6S obtained by non-invasive techniques may be used as major markers to evaluate metabolic recovery and stress produced by the training season workload in elite kayakers.

Biochemical Changes and Endocrine Responses in Pre-Competition Training in Elite Swimmers

Biochemical Changes and Endocrine Responses in Pre-Competition Training in Elite Swimmers

Oxidative stress in young judokas: effects of four week pre-competition training period

Oxidative stress in young judokas: effects of four week pre-competition training period

Possible differences in hematological status between junior and elite female volleyball players

BackgroundIron deficiency anaemia and iron deficiency without anemia have debilitating effects on athletic performance due to decreased work capacity and impaired cognition.ObjectiveThe main goal of this research was to identify...

Oxidative Stress Biomarker Monitoring in Elite Women Volleyball Athletes During a 6-Week Training Period

The objectives of this study were to determine (a) if reactive oxygen metabolites (ROMs) are a reliable parameter for monitoring oxidative stress in athletes alone or in association with other parameters of oxidative stress and depending on whether antioxidant supplements are taken or not; (b) the level of oxidative stress in athletes before the competition season; and (c) if oxidative status could be improved in volleyball athletes. Sixteen women athletes (supplemented group) received an antioxidant cocktail containing vitamin E, vitamin C, zinc gluconate, and selenium as a dietary supplement during a 6-week training period, whereas 12 of them (control group) received no dietary supplement. Blood samples were taken before and after the training period. The following parameters were measured: ROMs, superoxide anion (O2⁻₂), malondialdehyde (MDA), advanced oxidation protein products (AOPP), lipid hydroperoxide (LOOH), biological antioxidative potential (BAP), paraoxonase activity toward paraoxon (POase) and diazoxon (DZOase), superoxide dismutase(SOD), total sulfydryl group concentration (SH groups), and lipid status. Reactive oxygen metabolites were taken as the dependent variable and MDA, O2⁻₂, AOPP, and LOOH as independent variables. In the group of athletes who have received supplementation, linear regression analysis revealed that the implemented model had a lower influence on dROMs (70.4 vs. 27.9%) after the training period. The general linear model showed significant differences between parameters before and after training/supplementation (Wilks' lambda = 0.074, F = 11.76, p < 0.01). At the partial level, significant increases in ROM levels (p <0.05, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 286-337), SOD activity (CI: 113-144), and BAP (CI: 2,388-2,580) (p < 0.01) were observed. The association between ROMs and other parameters of oxidative stress was reduced in athletes who received supplements. During the precompetition training period, treatment with dietary supplements prevented the depletion of antioxidative defense in volleyball athletes.

Optimization of Rowing Specific Training by Studying the Stages Evaluation

Problem statement: We intended to analyze and systematize the most valuable ways through which is achieved the optimization in rowing training by the evaluation of control norms, trials and tests during some stages of the training plan. We consider that the sports performances can become better and better thanks to a continuous improvement of the working methodology during the main periods of training. Approach: The study was conducted over a period of 10 months (December 1, 2009-September 1, 2010) within the Sports Clubs, Juniors Department, men, of Falticeni and Iasi and it was made during the pre-competitive and competitive training period. The subjects of our research represent a group of 24 athletes from the two clubs: CS Falticeni and CS Iasi, out of which only 9 subjects have been able to obtained significant results. The study emphasizes the performances achieved during the control tests on ergometer rowing machines and on water (6000 and 2000 m events). Results: The study results confirmed that there is a significant relationship of the control tests results, erg and the competitive performance. The athletes

Perfil antropométrico e taxa de sudorese no futebol juvenil

Soccer is a sport whose worldwide acceptance has been growing year after year, and is one of the most important events in the sports world. A growing number of children and teenagers are engaged in this activity, but studies regarding risk factors such as adiposity and negative impacts such as dehydration and hyperthermia are scarce. The aim of this study was to evaluate the anthropometric profile, sweat rate and risk of dehydration among young soccer players. For anthropometric assessment, weight, height, circumference measures and skinfold thickness were collected and used for the determination of body mass index and percent body fat of each player. For determination of the sweat rate, players were weighed before and after pre-competition training. Analysis of fat percentage (14.4 ± 3.6%) and the sum of skinfolds showed that the players presented an optimal percentage and activity pattern, probably related to their role in the game. Although low (8.8 ± 6.6 mL/min), the sweat rate varied widely among players, wit the observation of a significant reduction (p &lt; 0.05) in final weight. The risk of dehydration was low, but the same cannot be stated for the risk of hyperthermia. Further studies involving this population are necessary to establish an adequate hydration strategy, with emphasis on the monitoring of signs of hyperthermia.

Anthropometric profile and sweat rate in young soccer players

Soccer is a sport whose worldwide acceptance has been growing year after year, and is one of the most important events in the sports world. A growing number of children and teenagers are engaged in this activity, but studies regarding risk factors such as adiposity and negative impacts such as dehydration and hyperthermia are scarce. The aim of this study was to evaluate the anthropometric profile, sweat rate and risk of dehydration among young soccer players. For anthropometric assessment, weight, height, circumference measures and skinfold thickness were collected and used for the determination of body mass index and percent body fat of each player. For determination of the sweat rate, players were weighed before and after pre-competition training. Analysis of fat percentage (14.4 ± 3.6%) and the sum of skinfolds showed that the players presented an optimal percentage and activity pattern, probably related to their role in the game. Although low (8.8 ± 6.6 mL/min), the sweat rate varied widely among players, wit the observation of a significant reduction (p < 0.05) in final weight. The risk of dehydration was low, but the same cannot be stated for the risk of hyperthermia. Further studies involving this population are necessary to establish an adequate hydration strategy, with emphasis on the monitoring of signs of hyperthermia.

Seasonal changes in aerobic fitness indices in elite cyclists

The primary purpose of this study was to compare seasonal changes in cycling gross efficiency (GE) and economy (EC) with changes in other aerobic fitness indices. The secondary aim was to assess the relationship between maximum oxygen consumption, GE, and EC among elite cyclists. The relationships of maximum oxygen consumption with GE and EC were studied in 13 cyclists (8 professional road cyclists and 5 mountain bikers). Seasonal changes in GE and EC, predicted time to exhaustion (pTE), maximum oxygen consumption, and respiratory compensation point (RCP) were examined in a subgroup of 8 subjects, before (TREST) and after (TPRECOMP) the pre-competitive winter training, and during the competitive period (TCOMP). GE and EC were assessed during a constant power test at 75% of peak power output (PPO). Significant main effect for time was found for maximum oxygen consumption (4.623 +/- 0.675, 4.879 +/- 0.727, and 5.010 +/- 0.663 L.min(-1); p = 0.028), PPO (417.8 +/- 46.5, 443.0 +/- 48.0, and 455 +/- 48 W; p < 0.001), oxygen uptake at RCP (3.866 +/- 0.793, 4.041 +/- 0.685, and 4.143 +/- 0.643 L.min(-1); p = 0.049), power output at RCP (330 +/- 64, 354 +/- 52, and 361 +/- 50 W; p < 0.001), and pTE (17 +/- 4, 30 +/- 8, and 46 +/- 17 min; p < 0.001). No significant main effect for time was found in GE (p = 0.097) or EC (p = 0.225), despite within-subject seasonal changes. No significant correlations were found between absolute maximum oxygen consumption and GE (r = -0.276; p = 0.359) or EC (r = -0.328; p = 0.272). However, cyclists with high maximum oxygen consumption values (i.e., over 80 mL.kg(-1).min(-1)), showed low efficiency rates. Despite within-subject seasonal waves in cycling efficiency, changes in GE and EC should not be expected as direct consequence of changes in other maximal and submaximal parameters of aerobic fitness (i.e., maximum oxygen consumption and RCP).

Glutamine and carbohydrate supplements reduce ammonemia increase during endurance field exercise

Blood ammonia concentration increases during endurance exercise and has been proposed as a cause for both peripheral and central fatigue. We examined the impact of glutamine and (or) carbohydrate supplementation on ammonemia in high-level runners. Fifteen men in pre-competitive training ran 120 min (approximately 34 km) outdoors on 4 occasions. On the first day, the 15 athletes ran without the use of supplements and blood samples were taken every 30 min. After that, each day for 4 d before the next 3 exercise trials, we supplemented the athletes' normal diets in bolus with carbohydrate (1 g.kg(-1).d(-1)), glutamine (70 mg.kg(-1).d(-1)), or a combination of both in a double-blind study. Blood ammonia level was determined before the run and every 30 min during the run. During the control trial ammonia increased progressively to approximately 70% above rest concentration. Following supplementation, independent of treatment, ammonia was not different (p>0.05) for the first 60 min, but for the second hour it was lower than in the control (p<0.05). Supplementation in high-level, endurance athletes reduced the accumulation of blood ammonia during prolonged, strenuous exercise in a field situation.

Exercise intensity and load during uphill cycling in professional 3-week races

This study examined the exercise intensity and load of the mountain passes of the major 3-week races according to their difficulty (length and slope) and position within the stage, using competition heart rate (HR). Sixteen world-class cyclists performed a laboratory test to assess maximal power output (W (max)), maximal HR (HR(max)), HR reserve (HRR), onset of blood lactate accumulation (OBLA), lactate threshold (LT) and a HR-power output relationship. HR was monitored during 68 OFF, 172 FIRST, and 134 SECOND category passes. Passes were also classified as BEGINNING, MIDDLE or END if they were placed in the first, second or final thirds of a stage, respectively. The training impulse (TRIMP) was calculated from HR and climb duration. %HRR was significantly higher in OFF and FIRST (77 +/- 7% in both), than SECOND (74 +/- 7%). Competition HR relative to HR(OBLA)R and HR(LT)R were higher in OFF (86 +/- 8, 98 +/- 11%) and FIRST (87 +/- 7, 100 +/- 11%) than SECOND (83 +/- 9, 95 +/- 13%). %HRR was lower in OFF situated in BEGINNING (66 +/- 1%) than in MIDDLE (82 +/- 5%) and END (77 +/- 7%); in FIRST situated in BEGINNING (74 +/- 9%) than in MIDDLE (79 +/- 5%); and in SECOND situated in BEGINNING (69 +/- 9%) compared to END (75 +/- 8%). The amount of TRIMP in OFF, FIRST and SECOND were 115 +/- 30, 72 +/- 29 and 41 +/- 19 (P < 0.05). In conclusion, the present study showed that mountain passes are highly demanding and that their intensity is related not only to the difficulty of the ascents but also to the position within the stage. The knowledge of these demands could be useful for planning pre-competition training strategies.