Precision Thermometer Research Articles

Cervix-Deep Rectal Temperature Differential on the Day ofOvulation is Correlated With Embryo Recovery Results in Mares.

Variations in temperature throughout the reproductive tract have been noted in many species. A recent study found the cervix-rectum temperature differential (CR-TD) in cattle was related to fertility. The present study aimed to assess the CR-TD in mares around the time of ovulation and relate it to embryo recover. Over 52 cycles, mares were inseminated with a fertile stallion and embryo recovery was undertaken on Day 7 post ovulation. Further 10 control mares were not inseminated. Rectal and cervical temperatures were measured using a precision thermometer on four or five occasions: the day of deslorelin administration and insemination, the day before ovulation, the day of ovulation (Day 0), the day after ovulation and, for inseminated mares, before embryo recovery on Day 7. One-way ANOVA showed that the CR-TD was significantly lower on the day of ovulation in the 36 positive cycles, in which an embryo was recovered, versus the 16 in which the embryo flush was negative (0.21 ± 0.17 vs. 0.40 ± 0.09°C; p < 0.001). Control cycles showed equivalent CR-TD to positive (0.13 ± 0.22 vs. 0.21 ± 0.17°C; p = 0.196) but not negative cycles (0.13 ± 0.22 vs. 0.40 ± 0.09°C; p < 0.001). A positive embryo recovery was associated with lower CR-TDs from the time of insemination and deslorelin to the day after ovulation compared to the day of embryo flushing (RM ANOVA; p < 0.001; Pairwise comparisons; p ≤ 0.01, in all cases). Rectal or cervical temperatures per se showed no significant differences between positive, negative or control cycles at any time point. In conclusion, a thermoregulatory process occurs close to ovulation which results in a lower CR-TD in cycles that produced an embryo versus those which did not. Further characterisation of TDs within the reproductive tract of the mare would increase our understanding of the conditions required for optimum fertility.

On the Method of temperature Measurements in Borehole Using Precision thermometers

Precise autonomous borehole thermometers (loggers) allow measuring temperature anomalies of small amplitude (up to 1 mK). It significantly expands the range of problems that borehole thermometry can solve in exploration geophysics, hydrogeology, engineering geology, and geoecology. However, thermal logging techniques remain outdated that hinders the effective implementation of the capabilities of these devices. The paper discusses methodological issues of precision temperature measurements in water-filled boreholes. Experimental studies with an autonomous thermometer rBrsolo³ T (RBR Ltd., Canada) showed that the device’s response to changes in ambient temperature (relaxation) is complex. Within a few seconds after the immersing of device in a borehole, it registers a temperature close to the fluid temperature. However, this temporary “window” closes soon, and after 15–20 seconds the measured temperature begins to deviate more and more from the undisturbed temperature. Next time measured temperature returns to the undisturbed temperature after 1000–6000 sec. In addition, the temperature response in the interval of 20–600 sec is complicated by non-periodic fluctuations with an amplitude of 0.02–0.05 K associated with thermal convection. The presence of a time “window” on the relaxation curve makes it possible to measure fluid temperature quickly and accurately in stop-and-go mode. The design parameters of thermometers determining the width of the “window” were assessed using mathematical modeling. Recommendations for conducting precision temperature logging of boreholes in both continuous and stop-and-go modes have been provided.

Fabrication of methylated carbon quantum dot-based fluorescent films for highly sensitive and stable temperature probes

Due to their distinct physicochemical characteristics and outstanding biocompatibility, carbon quantum dots have shown to offer enormous potential in the field of temperature sensing. However, there is still much to learn about the mechanism underlying carbon quantum dots' thermal sensing capabilities, and developing incredibly precise thermometers based on it is still an enormous obstacle. Herein, we successfully fabricated carbon quantum dots with variable luminescence wavelength and temperature-sensitive properties by adjusting the ingredients to modify the composition of functional groups (-NH2, -OH, -COOH and -CH2OH) on the surface of quantum dots in a simple hydrothermal synthesis process, followed by encapsulation with polyvinyl alcohol (PVA). Subsequently, structural/optical characterisation and temperature-dependent studies were utilized for investigations into the quantum dot fluorescence mechanisms as well as the thermal sensing characteristics connected to surface functional groups, respectively. Notably, the designed red-emitting methylenated carbon quantum dot film probe displayed more linear segmented temperature sensing properties (R2>0.99), a wider temperature applicability range (20–160 °C), and high temperature reversibility (20–80 °C, at least 4 cycles). Finally, the mechanism by which functional groups affect the thermal characteristics of carbon quantum dots was addressed, and we hypothesized that intramolecular and intermolecular hydrogen bonding interactions are important factors affecting the thermal properties of carbon dots. This work presents great promise and theoretical guidance for the development of highly reliable carbon quantum dot temperature sensing systems.

Development and Advantages of Renewable Energy Hybrid Systems (REHS)

Solar power is a demand of our planet in coming days due to the depletion of non-renewable sources of energy. The renewable sources of energy are responsible for 80 % of world’s power and we all are directly dependent on non-renewable source which will only last in coming decades. Due to increase in power demands new development in renewable sources of energy are going on due to which on commercial level solar cell achieved an efficiency of 15 – 20 % and improving day by day. At a panel inclination of 22 oC, the effect of panel temperature and relative humidity on photovoltaic are studied. A precision digital hygrometer and thermometer, and a digital clamp meter were used in the process. Results obtained show that the effect of relative humidity on current, voltage, power of single and 10 panels combined together. The results also show that voltage and current remain fairly stable between 15 % to 35 % relative humidity. Panel’s temperature also plays a significant role on performance after 55 ºC, the voltage started dropping in both cases. Output from the wind turbine has also been measured on a working condition day, and different readings have been recorded with an interval of 15 mins at different wind speeds. It works by converting the kinetic energy in the wind first into rotational kinetic energy in the turbine and then electrical energy that can be supplied. The output energy comes directly depend on speed of wind and the blades swept area. Renewable Energy Hybrid System (REHS) is a system that utilizes two sources or more of renewable energy. As an advantage, it will produce continuous source of energy and utilizing one source in the absence of other source(s). The aim of this study is to enhance the energy output of renewable energy system which is the wind turbine by incorporating solar panels.

Cervix-deep rectal temperature differential on the day of ovulation is correlated with embryo recovery results

In many species, the reproductive tract experiences a temperature decrease before ovulation to aid gamete maturation. For example, pre-ovulatory follicles are ≤1.0°C cooler than ovarian stroma in cattle, and a lower temperature differential (TD) between cervix-rectum at the time of insemination has been correlated with pregnancy in cows. The present study aimed to compare TDs (cervix-deep rectal) in positive versus negative embryo recovery cycles. Deep rectal and cervical temperatures were measured using a precision thermometer with a 30cm probe (Electronic Temperature Instruments Ltd, UK; resolution 0.01°C, accuracy ±0.05°C) in 19 mares over 32 estrous cycles. Mares were inseminated with a fertile stallion and excluded if they required any treatment other than oxytocin administration. Embryo flushing was undertaken on Day 7/8. Deep rectal and cervical temperatures were taken on 5 occasions: the day of deslorelin administration and insemination, the day before ovulation, the day of ovulation (Day 0), one day post ovulation and before embryo recovery on Day 7 or 8. Statistical analysis was undertaken using the Mann-Whitney Rank Sum test. The median TD (cervix-deep rectal), and cervical and deep rectal temperatures were compared between cycles with a positive versus negative embryo recovery. From the 32 cycles, 21 (65.6%)cycles produced an embryo. On the day of ovulation positive cycles showed a lower median TD than negatives ones (0.19 vs. 0.40 °C; p=0.001). For the 11 negatives cycles a lower median TD was seen in the two days prior to ovulation versus the day of ovulation and the day of embryo recovery (p≤0.023 in all cases). For positive cycles lower median TDs were seen at all time points from induction till one day after ovulation versus the day of embryo recovery (p<0.007 in all cases). For rectal or cervical temperatures per se no significant differences were seen between positive and negative cycles at any time point. However, in negative cycles median cervical temperature was lower the day before ovulation versus the day of embryo recovery (p=0.014). In positive, but not negative, cycles the median rectal temperatures on the day of induction, ovulation and the day after ovulation were higher than on the day of embryo recovery (p<0.035 for all days). In conclusion, as in cattle, a thermoregulatory process occurs at the time of ovulation in the mare in which a lower TD between cervix and rectum is related to a greater likelihood of pregnancy. Further characterization of TDs within the reproductive tract of the mare would increase our understanding of the conditions required for oocyte maturation.

Study on the Measuring and Reading Mode of High Precision Thermometer in Hydraulic Engineering

After the operation of large water conservancy projects, water temperature changes will have a significant impact on the surrounding ecological environment. In order to monitor the water temperature, a water temperature monitoring system covering the whole flow channel has been established in China's giant hydropower stations. In order to accurately measure the water temperature in the water level fluctuation area, a ± 0.1 ℃ water temperature gauge is selected as the front sensing device. Compared with traditional thermometers, high-precision thermometers are rarely used in projects. After investigation and comparison, platinum resistance thermometer has been applied in water conservancy projects. In view of the fact that there is no special manual measuring and reading equipment for the platinum resistance thermometer before the automation is connected during the construction period, a four wire temperature measuring and reading mode is proposed, which is applicable to the platinum resistance thermometer by using the existing hydraulic bridge, and the rationality of the measuring and reading mode is verified through the comparison of indoor tests.

Nanoceramic based thermometer Probe: From synthesis of material-device development

Temperature is the extent of the coldness or hotness materials. It is a basic physical quantity which affects any object and process like industrial processes, electrical systems’ components, life and health of living things, agricultural soil, bridges, highways, buildings, dams, environment, etc. So, it should be properly measured and regulated using greatly accurate, precise, environmentally friendly, in-situ, low-power and low cost thermometers. There are plenty of thermometers with the drawbacks of high power consumption, possession of toxic materials, costly, less accurate and imprecise. In this work, I discuss the design and development of a nanoceramic nickel manganate (NiMn2O4) thermistor powder-based digital electronic thermometer probe. The nanomaterial was synthesized using acetates of Nickel (Ni) and Manganese (Mn) as precursor materials by using the wet chemical method. The fabricated powder was characterized using field emission scanning electronic microscopy (FeSEM) and energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) for its morphology and composition respectively. Powder x-ray diffraction (XRD) was also used to determine the crystal structure and crystallite size of the sample. The sample is unform in morphology, spinel in structure, 24 nm in average crystallite size and composed of Ni, Mn and O2 in the proper ratio. The 0.35 g of the powder was filled and pressed well in a 2 mm diameter and 2 cm long cylindrical tube to fabricate and characterize the thermistor-based thermometer. The resulting thermistor was characterized and calibrated using the Stein and Hart and the β-coefficient thermistor calibration modelling techniques. The embedded system was also developed using atmega328 microprocessor-based microcontroller, a simple signal conditioning electric circuit, stainless steel cylindrical tube and 3D printed package. The system was programmed using Arduino programming integrated development environment. The features of the resulting thermometer are 4-digit precision, 0 °C–70 °C range of temperature measurement, 5 V DC power supply requirement, contains environmental friendly chemicals and is highly accurate. It can be used primarily in agriculture. It can also be used in industry, medicine, automobile, environment, food processing, home automation, etc. Additionally, this thermometer can also be used as the element of sensor nodes in wireless sensor networks (WSNs) and Internet of Things (IoT) technology in automation.

Temperature Variation in a Homogeneous Sphere Induced by the Tide-Generating Force

In this paper, we present a semi-coupled theory to compute the temperature variation due to the tide-generating force. The tidal volume strain is first derived in a pure elastic homogeneous sphere, in terms of the classic Love’s solution. Then the temperature variation is obtained by solving the inhomogeneous heat conduction equation by considering both the isothermal and adiabatic conditions on the surface. The results show that the magnitude of the tidal temperature variation can be more than 1 mK, which is detectable by the current precision thermometer.

Long Term Performance Analysis of Photovoltaic Modules in the Sainshand of Dornogobi Province

This paper presents the evaluation results of a long-term performance of 2 type PV module from actual data measured over a period of more than 6 years in the Gobi Desert of Mongolia. For the purpose of estimating solar energy potentials and durability of PV systems in the Gobi desert area, a data acquisition system, which includes crystalline silicon (c-Si), polycrystalline silicon (p-Si) modules and precision pyranometer, thermometer and anemometer, have been installed at the Sainshand city in October, 2002. This system has been measuring 23 parameters including solar irradiation and meteorological parameters in every 10 minutes. It has been observed that the high output gain due to the operating condition in an extreme low ambient temperature and the PV module degradation rate indicated over -1.5[%/yr] after 6 years exposure test.

Highly precise FIR thermometer based on the thermally enhanced upconversion luminescence for temperature feedback photothermal therapy.

A highly precise temperature-feedback photothermal therapy platform in deep tissue is proposed based on all-fiber fluorescence intensity ratio (FIR) thermometry, which provides a promising route to realize real-time temperature monitoring in the minimally invasive treatment of tumors. Highly disordered double perovskite Li2Zn2Mo3O12 (LZMO) phosphors doped with rare earth ions were prepared and intense green upconversion emissions were observed with an ultra-low excitation power. The thermal enhancement of the upconversion luminescence was achieved up to 423 K, which is very beneficial to achieve a good signal-to-noise performance during the temperature-rise period. Superior temperature sensing performance was demonstrated with the maximum absolute sensitivity of 89.9 × 10−4 at 423 K. The strong upconversion emissions and high temperature sensitivity result in a small temperature error (±0.4 K). The integrated bifunctional needle could simultaneously realize temperature measurement and laser heating, which was exhibited in the denaturation of egg white and laser ablation of the porcine liver in vitro.

Research and Development of an IoT-Based Remote Asthma Patient Monitoring System.

This paper presents the research and development of an Internet of Things- (IoT-) based remote health monitoring system for asthmatic patients. Asthma is an inflammatory disease. Asthma causes the lungs to swell and get narrower, making it difficult to carry air in and out of the lungs. This situation makes breathing very difficult. Remote patient monitoring (RPM) is a method of collecting health-related data from patients who are in a remote location and electronically transmitting it to healthcare providers for evaluation and consultation. The aim of this study is to design a monitoring system that allows doctors to monitor asthmatic patients from a remote area. The proposed system will allow patients to measure oxygen saturation (SpO2), heart rate, body temperature, humidity, volatile gases, room temperature, and electrocardiogram (ECG) using various sensors, which will be displayed in an application. This data is then sent to the doctor to monitor the patient's condition and suggest appropriate actions. Overall, the system consists of an Android application, a website, and various sensors. The Android studio and Java programming language were used to develop the application. For the frontend, the website was built using Hypertext Markup Language (HTML), Cascading Style Sheets (CSS), JavaScript, and jQuery. The system also uses Django, a Python-based open-source web framework, for the backend. The system developed the various sensors using an ESP8266 microcontroller compatible with the Arduino Integrated Development Environment (IDE). The system uses a MAX30100 pulse oximeter and heart rate sensor, a GY-906 MLX90614 noncontact precision thermometer, a DHT11 humidity and temperature sensor, a MQ-135 gas and air quality sensor, and an AD8232 ECG sensor for collecting various parameters that may trigger asthma attacks. Finally, the system developed the Asthma Tracker app and the Asthma Tracker website for remote health monitoring. The system was initially tested on demo patients and later deployed and tested on seven real human test subjects. Overall, the monitoring system produced satisfactory results. The data acquired by the sensors has a high level of accuracy. The system also maintained user-friendliness and low cost.

Tunable diode laser-based two-line thermometry: a noncontact thermometer for active body temperature measurement.

A precise and fast optical thermometer based on a tunable diode laser absorption spectroscopy is developed for breath diagnostics with relevance to noncontact body temperature measurement. As water vapor (H2O) is the major component in human breath, two optimal absorption lines of H2O at 1392 nm and 1371 nm are selected for sensitive body temperature measurement by systematically investigating the near-infrared spectral database. The optical thermometer is developed using two distributed feedback diode lasers with the time-division multiplexing technique to achieve real-time measurement. The sensor performance such as accuracy, repeatability, and time response is tested in a custom-designed gas cell with its temperature controlled in the range of 20°C-50°C. By measuring the test air with different water concentrations, the sensor consistently shows a quadratic response to temperature with an R-squared value of 0.9998. Under the readout rate of 1 s, the sensor achieves a measurement precision of 0.16°C, suggesting its potential applications to fast, accurate, and noncontact body temperature measurements.

Role of topology in determining the precision of a finite thermometer

Temperature fluctuations of a finite system follow the Landau bound δT^{2}=T^{2}/C(T) where C(T) is the heat capacity of the system. In turn, the same bound sets a limit to the precision of temperature estimation when the system itself is used as a thermometer. In this paper, we employ graph theory and the concept of Fisher information to assess the role of topology on the thermometric performance of a given system. We find that low connectivity is a resource to build precise thermometers working at low temperatures, whereas highly connected systems are suitable for higher temperatures. Upon modeling the thermometer as a set of vertices for the quantum walk of an excitation, we compare the precision achievable by position measurement to the optimal one, which itself corresponds to energy measurement.

Up-conversion properties of Ba3Lu2Zn5O11:Yb3+,Er3+ phosphors for optical thermometer based on FIR technique

In this work, Ba3Lu2Zn5O11:Yb3+,Er3+ phosphors were successfully elaborated. The structures, morphology features and up-conversion characteristics were fully investigated through X-ray powder diffraction patterns, scanning electron microscopy and photoluminescence spectra, respectively. The optimal green emission sample Ba3Lu2Zn5O11:0.4Yb3+,0.02Er3+ was determined through up-conversion spectra excited by 980 nm. Based on power-dependent spectra and energy level schematics of Er3+ and Yb3+, the up-conversion luminescence behaviors and corresponding up-conversion mechanisms were interpreted in detail. Ba3Lu2Zn5O11:Yb3+,Er3+ phosphors show excellent temperature sensing performances based on fluorescence intensity ratio technique. The maximal relative sensitivity is 1.18 %K−1@303 K and the minimal temperature resolution is 0.26 K@303 K. More importantly, calculated temperature sensing repeatability at 333 K and 573 K is higher than 98%. All results suggest the great promise of Ba3Lu2Zn5O11:Yb3+,Er3+ phosphors as future precise thermometers.

Covariation of droplet size distribution and air humidity in fog: A methodological approach

The dynamics of fog droplets depend on their size and chemical composition as well on the ambient conditions such as relative humidity (RH) and turbulence. We analyze the droplet size distribution (DSD) in clouds and fog and how it covaries with the air humidity. We developed a new setup to remove fog droplets from the foggy air in order to quantify RH in the droplet-free air. The setup consists of a newly developed fog droplet separator with an attached H2O gas analyzer and precision thermometer. The fog droplet separator works similarly to an active fog collector, yet with a high collection efficiency of 98.4% for the liquid water content. The water vapor concentration and the air temperature are measured in the droplet-free air at a frequency of 1 Hz. Using this system and a FM100 Fog Monitor, we analyzed the droplet size distribution (DSD) and studied how it covaries with RH.We examined two long-lasting fog events in March and April 2017 on Mt. Lulin, Taiwan. We found that the DSD differed between data with high RH (>100.3%) and low RH (<99.7%). For one event, we were able to confirm the hypothesis of the Köhler theory, which states that droplets are smaller at a low RH than at a high RH. In the other event, the droplets were larger at low RH, which was caused either by entrainment of air masses of different compositions or by droplet growth from below the detection limit to a detectable droplet size, or by a decrease of droplet sizes beyond the critical diameter with decreasing RH. The results show that the developed setup is appropriate to analyze how the DSD covaries with RH in fog.

Er3+, Yb3+ co-doped Sr3(PO4)2 phosphors: A ratiometric luminescence thermometer based on Stark levels with tunable sensitivity

Novel precise thermometers are increasingly important due to the development of electronic and optoelectronic devices. Up-converting Sr3(PO4)2:Er3+,Yb3+ phosphor, exhibiting anti-Stokes luminescence has been developed as an optical temperature sensor. The basic physicochemical properties of the synthesized material, i.e. crystal structure, morphology, diffuse reflectance spectrum, up-conversion (UC) emission and the corresponding chromaticity diagram were systematically studied. The UC luminescence properties of the micron-sized particles synthesized are strongly temperature-dependent, from 303 to 623 K. By using a single material, the selection of different Stark sublevels results in various temperature sensitivities. Using band intensity ratio of Er3+ Stark components 2H11/2(1)/4S3/2(1), the relative sensitivity of 0.88% K−1 at 303 K was obtained.

열역학법을 이용한 중규모급 수력플랜트 현장 효율 시험

The field efficiency test for a hydropower plant where a Franics hydraulic turbine is installed has been carried out by thermodynamic method usually used for the high head hydraulic turbine over 100 m. During the testing, the loss of hydraulic energy converted to thermal energy is measured by a precise thermometers with accuracy of 0.001K to estimate the efficiency. In order to measure the water temperatures on the low-pressure measuring section in the draft tube, two perforated pipes were used per draft tue outlet. Three thermometers were installed in these perforated pipes in each draft tube outlet. On the high-pressure measuring section at the casing inlet, 2 opposite thermometers were installed to obtain the inflowing water temperature. The field test was conducted for total 39 cases while adjusting the power output from max. 52.0MW to min. 19.2 MW. Error analysis of the test results confirmed that the max. absolute uncertainty of turbine efficiency is 0.73% and repeatability is estimated to be less than 0.4%. Based on the measuring data, the best efficiency point for the turbine efficiency without aeration is estimated at 93.21% for a specified flow rate of 50.91 m³/s and a specified turbine power of 52.53MW. In addition, plant efficiency is evaluated by considering generator and water way efficiencies in addition to turbine efficiency which has the main effect in order to seek optimal operation condition of the hydropower plant.

Robust liquid-core nanocapsules as biocompatible and precise ratiometric fluorescent thermometers for living cells

Intracellular thermometry with favorable biocompatibility and precision is essential for insight into temperature-related cellular events. Here, liquid-core nanocapsule ratiometric fluorescent thermometers (LCN-RFTs) were prepared by encapsulating thermosensitive organic fluorophores (N,N′-di(2-ethylhexyl)-3,4,9,10-perylene tetracarboxylic diimide, DEH-PDI) with hydrophobic solvent (2,2,4-trimethylpentane, TMP) into polystyrene/silica hybrid nanoshells. As the fluorescent thermosensitive unit of the LCN-RFT, the TMP solution of DEH-PDI was responsible for the fluorescence response to temperature. Benefitting from the hydrophilic nanoshells, the LCN-RFTs exhibited favorable anti-interference and biocompatibility. Furthermore, the LCN-RFTs showed an excellent precision of 0.02 °C–0.10 °C in a simulated physiological environment from 10.00 °C to 90.00 °C, and were employed to realize intracellular thermometry with an outstanding precision of 0.06 °C–0.14 °C. This work provides a feasible method of using hydrophobic organic fluorophores for intracellular thermometry by encapsulating them into nanocapsules.

Challenges for In-Flight Calibration of Thermal Infrared Instruments for Earth Observation

Satellite instruments operating in the thermal infrared wavelength range &gt;3 µm provide information for applications such as land surface temperature (LST), sea surface temperatures (SST), land surface emissivity, land classification, soil composition, volcanology, fire radiative power, cloud masking, aerosols, and trace gases. All these instruments are dependent on blackbody (BB) calibration sources to provide the traceability of the radiometric calibration to SI (Système International d’Unités). A key issue for flight BB sources is to maintain the traceability of the radiometric calibration from ground to orbit. For example, the temperature of the BB is measured by a number of precision thermometers that are calibrated against a reference Standard Platinum Resistance Thermometer (SPRT) to provide the traceability to the International Temperature Scale of 1990 (ITS-90). However, once calibrated the thermometer system is subject to drifts caused by on-ground testing, the launch and space environments. At best the uncertainties due to thermometer ageing can only be estimated as there is no direct method for recalibrating. Comparisons with other satellite sensors are useful for placing an upper limit on calibration drifts but do not themselves provide a traceable link to the SI. In this paper, we describe we describe some of the technology developments, including phase change cells for use as reference standards, thermometer readout electronics and implementation of novel coatings, that are in progress to enhance the traceability of flight calibration systems in the thermal infrared.

Investigation of monthly variations in the efficiencies of photovoltaics due to sunrise and sunset times

&lt;p&gt;The effect of time of day and month on the efficient conversion of solar energy to electrical energy using a polycrystalline (PV) module in calabar was studied. A KT-908 precision digital hygrometer and thermometer, and a M890C+ digital multimeter were used in the process. Results obtained shows that photovoltaic produce different levels of peak efficiencies at different times of the day for different months due to the difference in sunrise and sunset times for the months. The results also indicated that photovoltaics will be more efficient in months with low average relative humidity couple with low panel temperature. A peak efficiency of 77% at 12:30 in the month of April was observed before dropping to 73% at 12:00 in the month of May, indicating that there might be further drop in efficiency as we proceed further into the year. Results also show that photovoltaics are more efficient before noon in the month of May than in April while the reverse will be observed in the afternoon. &lt;/p&gt;