Precise Provenance Research Articles

Comment on “Paleoenvironment and paleoecology associated with the early phases of the Great American Biotic Interchange based on stable isotope analysis of fossil mammals and new U[sbnd]Pb ages from the Pampas of Argentina” by Sanz-Pérez et al. [Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 634 (2024), 111917

Sanz-Pérez et al. (2024) recently, based on detrital zircon, presented new maximum depositional ages for several sites of the Neogene of central Argentina to constraint the age of the faunas studied with stable isotopes. Unfortunately, the precise provenance of the dated samples is not clear. In this comment, we discuss the absence of key basic information to replicate their (geochronological) study, or even to evaluate their inferences and conclusions. Without more information about the precise geographic provenance of the dated detrital zircons, and their stratigraphic position in the geological profile/schema of each locality the interpretation of the authors is not supported by the presented information.

Hyalophane- and tourmaline-bearing K-metasomatised polished stone implement from Northern Hungary

A late Neolithic flat adze, originated from Szerencs-Taktaföldvár locality, North Hungary, was studied from archaeometric aspect. The adze suffered an alkali metasomatism which was revealed by the strikingly high alkali content and a large amount of potassic feldspars. Ba-rich and Ba-free potassic feldspars, and tourmaline, as characteristic minerals, were recorded from the adze. Despite of the several unique features, the precise provenance cannot be established. According to the mineral assemblage, one of the most possible provenances of raw material is Slovak Ore Mountains, near Tisovec; but due to the archaeological background of the Tiszaculture, the regions south of the Carpathian basin (Balkan, Banat) should be considered as well.

The provenance of the stones in the Menga dolmen reveals one of the greatest engineering feats of the Neolithic

The technical and intellectual capabilities of past societies are reflected in the monuments they were able to build. Tracking the provenance of the stones utilised to build prehistoric megalithic monuments, through geological studies, is of utmost interest for interpreting ancient architectures as well as to contribute to their protection. According to the scarce information available, most stones used in European prehistoric megaliths originate from locations near the construction sites, which would have made transport easier. The Menga dolmen (Antequera, Malaga, Spain), listed in UNESCO World Heritage since July 2016, was designed and built with stones weighting up to nearly 150 tons, thus becoming the most colossal stone monument built in its time in Europe (c. 3800–3600 BC). Our study (based on high-resolution geological mapping as well as petrographic and stratigraphic analyses) reveals key geological and archaeological evidence to establish the precise provenance of the massive stones used in the construction of this monument. These stones are mostly calcarenites, a poorly cemented detrital sedimentary rock comparable to those known as 'soft stones' in modern civil engineering. They were quarried from a rocky outcrop located at a distance of approximately 1 km. In this study, it can be inferred the use of soft stone in Menga reveals the human application of new wood and stone technologies enabling the construction of a monument of unprecedented magnitude and complexity.

Understanding the provenance and production process of historic mortars—a novel approach employing calcareous nannofossils

Limestones (CaCO3) have been an important source for masonry and mortars throughout approx. 10,000 years of human history. They are often composed of calcitic shells of minute marine algae, known as calcareous nannofossils. The 0.25–30-µm large calcitic skeletons of these primary producers have been well documented from various archaeological materials including building stones of masonry. Surprisingly, these tiny microfossils were recently also observed in medieval mortars and mortar-based materials, even though the carbonate-based source rocks of the mortars have been heated in kilns for quicklime production. Burning experiments of carbonate-rich sedimentary rocks, containing well-preserved and abundant calcareous nannofossils, documented a deteriorating preservation and a decrease of diversity and relative abundance of the nannofossils with increasing temperatures.Alongside the lime-based binder historic mortars often contain under- and overburnt lime lumps and carbonate-rich aggregates; the latter were added after the heating process. Lime lumps and aggregates offer additional, so far not yet fully understood information on the burning process. Here, calcareous nannofossils were studied in ultra-thin sections of historic mortars, resulting in the separate analysis of the binder, lime lumps and aggregates. The findings allow (i) a more precise provenance of the limestones and (ii) a more accurate reconstruction of the temperatures reached during historic quicklime production. Our study thus improves the provenance analysis approach of limestones and sheds light on historic technology of mortar production by using calcareous nannofossils.

Rediscovery and stratigraphic calibration of the classic Nihewan Fauna, Hebei Province, China

The classic Nihewan Fauna, as the representative of early Pleistocene Asian Land Mammal Age Nihewanian, has long been cited for bio- and chronostratigraphic correlation. However, its precise provenance and stratigraphic horizon have remained unsolved till now. The authors successfully extracted the vital information by rediscovering 30 of the original excavation localities. The fossils were catalogued with their provenance through an extensive field survey and comprehensive inspection of the Tianjin Natural History Museum collection. A review of the original description of these fossil localities, using satellite images, and subsequent lithological examination of the Xiashagou strata in the field verified the new findings. The survey produced the first stratigraphic profile calibrated with fossil horizons of the Nihewan formation in the Xiashagou section. Correlated with the published magnetostratigraphical profile of the section, an age of ∼2.4–1.8 Ma is estimated for the classic Nihewan Fauna.

Breccia verde di Sparta, an elusive decorative stone used in antiquity

AbstractBreccia verde di Sparta is the traditional name given by the Roman marmorarii of the 19th century to a brecciated volcanic rock whose unknown precise provenance has been determined here for the first time through exploration of the broader area of Psefí (south of Krokees, province of Sparta, Peloponnese, Greece). This location was well known in antiquity and in modern times for having been exploited by the Romans for an important green porphyry named lapis lacedaemonius, nowadays also known as porfido verde antico. This breccia has been seldom used in Roman times for opera sectilia; in contrast, it appears more frequently reused in medieval floors; it is also frequently present in historical lithotecs formed in the 19th and 20th centuries. To fully characterise it and determine its relationships with green porphyry, breccia verde di Sparta samples from the newly discovered source have been thoroughly studied minero‐petrographically and geochemically, and their complex genesis has been reconstructed. It appears that after extrusion the original brecciated basaltic andesite underwent extensive hydrothermal low‐grade metamorphism, with a complete alteration of the igneous assemblage and minerals that preserved only part of the clinopyroxene phenocrysts. Alteration was accompanied by crystallisation of abundant epidote and chlorite, which imparted its predominant green colour to the rock. These breccias intruded in the lithoclases of the porphyry.

India’s Greening Trend Seems to Slow Down. What Does Aerosol Have to Do with It?

Multiple drivers perturb the terrestrial carbon cycle, which ultimately reshapes the fertilization of carbon dioxide (CO2) and reorientates the climate. One such driver is atmospheric aerosols, which cascade the ecosystem’s productivity in a large proportionality. Investigating this relation is non-conventional and limited across the globe. With the abundance of heterogenetic terrestrial ecosystems, India’s primary productivity has a large proportion of the global carbon balance. Under climate change stress, India’s unique spatial and climatological features perturb atmospheric aerosols from natural sources to anthropogenic sources. In light of that, this study utilizes the Carnegie–Ames Stanford Approach (CASA) model to elucidate the consequence by examining the potential effect of aerosol load on the ecosystem productivity (Net Primary Production; NPP) for various agroclimatic zones of India from 2001–2020. CASA reveals a negative decadal amplitude with an overall increase in the NPP trend. In contrast, aerosol loadings from MODIS highlight the increasing trend, with definite seasonal intensities. Employing the CASA model and earth observations, the study highlights the increase in NPP in forest-based ecosystems due to relatively lower aerosols and higher diffuse radiation. Critically, strong dampening of NPP was observed in the agroecological and sparse vegetation zones inferring that the aerosol loadings affect the primary productivity by affecting the photosynthesis of canopy architecture. Spatial sensitivity zones across different ecological regions result in a non-homogenous response because of different phenological and canopy architecture that is mediated by the radiation intensities. Based on the analysis, the study infers that AOD positively influences the canopy-scale photosynthesis by diffuse radiation, which promotes NPP but is less likely for the crop canopy ecosystems. Barring the limitations, enhancement of NPP in the forest ecosystems offset the demand for carbon sink in the agroecosystems. Findings from this study reveal that a more precise provenance of aerosol effects on carbon fluxes is required to understand the uncertainties in the terrestrial carbon cycle.

Provenance and paleoenvironmental context of the Late Pleistocene thin aeolian silt mantles in southwestern Poland – A widespread parent material for soils

Thin loess deposits are widespread soil parent materials and important archives for paleoenvironmental reconstruction. The origin of loess in SW Poland is attributed to the Great Odra Valley (GOV), following the general concept that large rivers play a major role in regional silt supply. Yet, the precise provenance (glacier sources and/or local rocks) of silts, possibly deflated from dry GOV braided riverbeds, is not clear. Our study of thin and thick loess mantles in SW Poland for the first time indicates the provenance of thin loess based on mineralogical (MLA-SEM) and isotopic analyses (143Nd/144Nd, 87Sr/86Sr). Luminescence ages of five localities point to thin loess mantle formation during and shortly (23.0 to 17.7 ka yr) after the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM). Our isotopic data indicate that thin loess deposits in SW Poland are the mixtures of two main components – local Sudetic and Scandinavian, the latter delivered by the Fennoscandian ice sheet (FIS). Also, detailed analyses of heavy minerals show that a single mineral (e.g., hornblende) may come from both Sudetic and Scandinavian sources. This research highlights the role of the (Pleistocene) GOV in collecting and homogenizing materials, while supplying the region with fine particles to be deflated by paleowinds from open surfaces. Anomalies in mineralogy and isotopic composition are connected with influence of Sudetic mountain rivers and locally blowing silt material by katabatic winds. Regional grain size differentiation of thin loess mantles explains transport distance and altitude.

Provenance and paleoclimatic implications of loess deposits in Shandong Province, eastern China

AbstractThe loess deposits in Shandong Province in eastern China potentially provide valuable insights into past environmental changes. However, their precise provenance and paleoclimatic implications are unclear. We studied three loess sections located in the piedmont of the Central Shandong Mountains (PCSM) and in an offshore island in Bohai Gulf. Both the glacial loess and interglacial paleosol units are characterized by a coarse grain size, indicating a proximal sediment source. Using the “grain size–transport distance” model established for the Chinese Loess Plateau (CLP), the estimated source-sink distance is ~200–300 km for the PCSM loess and ~100–200 km for the coastal loess. This suggests that fluvial deposits of the Yellow River system in the North China Plain and sediments on the adjacent continental shelf are the major provenance for the Shandong loess. In contrast to the CLP, the Shandong loess does not show a consistent pattern of coarse grain size and low magnetic susceptibility values in glacial loess compared with interglacial paleosols, likely due to frequent changes in dust sources caused by diversions of the Yellow River and local hydroclimatic conditions. Nevertheless, the loess-paleosol alternations in the Shandong loess are a product of global glacial–interglacial cycles.

Genetic identity of Australian prickly acacia (Vachellia nilotica, Fabales: Mimosoideae) – Assessing the target for biological control

Prickly acacia (Vachellia nilotica) has been the target of biological control programmes in Australia for over three decades, with little success. Control efforts may have been hindered by poor characterisation of the plants in Australia, and the ambiguous taxonomy of the species. Nine subspecies of this weed have been described, with only one subspecies identified in Australia (subsp. indica), though previous genetic screening identified a unique genotype in Australia that allegedly did not match any of the previously described subspecies (dubbed the “Pakistan genotype”). We used gene sequencing to characterise this weed in Australia, and to assess the native range distribution of the invasive subspecies. Two widespread ITS1 haplotypes were identified from 25 localities across northern Australia, corresponding to subsp. indica and the undescribed “Pakistan genotype”. Many plants were heterozygous at the ITS1 locus, indicating plants with the distinct genotypes are freely interbreeding. The “Pakistan genotype”, which has no defining morphological characters, was found across the native range of subsp. indica (including Ethiopia, where this subspecies has only recently been detected). The “Pakistan genotype” is not, in other words, a distinct subspecies, but simply represents genetic variation within subsp. indica. No genetic structuring was found across the native distribution of subsp. indica, so the precise provenance of the Australian plants could not be determined. Future studies should use microsatellites or genotyping-by-sequencing approaches to provide a finer-scale assessment of the provenance of the Australian plants.

Update of the Pennsylvanian palynostratigraphy from central-western Argentina

The Raistrickia densa-Convolutispora muriornata (DM) palynological assemblage biozone formerly proposed twenty years ago for Pennsylvanian successions of central-western Argentina is at present represented in fifty stratigraphic sections. The advances in the studies, with detailed paleoenvironmental data and sampling with precise provenance through complete successions, allow the range of several species to be constrained. The biohorizons and composition of the three subzones (A, B, and C) are updated according to a revision of 400 palynological samples, and a new proposal of subdivision is presented. Of stratigraphic importance in the characterization of the DM Biozone are the presence of Lundbladispora braziliensis and radial monosaccate pollen at the lowermost boundary and the appearance of Pakhapites fusus and Vittatina costabilis at the uppermost biohorizon. Subzone B is recognized by the occurrence of Spelaeotriletes ybertii and bisaccate taeniate pollen, while Subzone C is distinguished by the first occurrence of Raistrickia cephalata and increase of taeniate pollen (including Vittatina). Variations in diversity are discussed concerning paleoenvironments, and floristic changes, as well as a comparison with other Gondwanan assemblages is presented. Absolute datings indicate that the age of the Subzone A is constrained within the late Serpukhovian-early Bashkirian, the Subzone B to the late Bashkirian-earliest Moscovian, and the Subzone C to the Moscovian-Kasimovian? The accurate U–Pb zircon CA-TIMS calibration for the DM Biozone allows constraining the stratigraphic range of its species and the correlation with other Gondwanan regions.

Three Christian Funerary Stelae from the Staatliches Museum Ägyptischer Kunst at Munich

Abstract This article presents a full publication of three Christian funerary stelae from Egypt, which were bought in 1912 by Friedrich von Bissing and are now in the Staatliches Museum Ägyptischer Kunst at Munich. The first one represents an orans figure, the second depicts a crux ansata and the third has the names Pasep inscribed (in Greek) on the front and Phanes on the back. Although the precise provenance of these pieces is unknown, stylistic features suggest they are from Deir el-Bala’iza, Armant and Edfu respectively.

On the trail of Scandinavia's early metallurgy: Provenance, transfer and mixing.

The rich and long-lasting Nordic Bronze Age was dependent throughout on incoming flows of copper and tin. The crucial turning point for the development of the NBA can be pinpointed as the second phase of the Late Neolithic (LN II, c. 2000–1700 BC) precisely because the availability and use of metal increased markedly at this time. But the precise provenance of copper reaching Scandinavia in the early second millennium is still unclear and our knowledge about the driving force leading to the establishment of the Bronze Age in southern Scandinavia is fragmentary and incomplete. This study, drawing on a large data set of 210 samples representing almost 50% of all existing metal objects known from this period in Denmark, uses trace element (EDXRF) and isotope analyses (MC-ICP-MS) of copper-based artifacts in combination with substantial typological knowledge to profoundly illuminate the contact directions, networks and routes of the earliest metal supplies. It also presents the first investigation of local recycling or mixing of metals originating from different ore regions. Both continuity and change emerge clearly in the metal-trading networks of the Late Neolithic to the first Bronze Age period. Artifacts in LN II consist mainly of high-impurity copper (so-called fahlore type copper), with the clear exception of British imports. Targeted reuse of foreign artifacts in local production is demonstrated by the presence of British metal in local-style axes. The much smaller range of lead isotope ratios among locally crafted compared to imported artifacts is also likely due to mixing. In the latter half of Nordic LN II (1800–1700 BC), the first signs emerge of a new and distinct type of copper with low impurity levels, which gains enormously in importance later in NBA IA.

Inscripciones árabes inéditas en el Museo Provincial de Almería

En este artículo se estudian 25 fragmentos inéditos que forman parte de 19 inscripciones árabes conservadas en el Museo Provincial de Almería. Todas ellas son de Almería, sin que conste el lugar exacto de procedencia, salvo en dos casos. La mayoría, en concreto trece inscripciones, son de carácter funerario; dos son conmemorativas o fundacionales; y el resto, cuatro, son decorativas. Su cronología va desde el segundo cuarto del siglo X al XII, predominando las de época almorávide, que es la época de mayor desarrollo económico de la ciudad.

Exploring Philemon: Freedom, Brotherhood, and Partnership in the New Society by Roy R. Jeal

Reviewed by: Exploring Philemon: Freedom, Brotherhood, and Partnership in the New Society by Roy R. Jeal Alicia J. Batten roy r. jeal, Exploring Philemon: Freedom, Brotherhood, and Partnership in the New Society (Rhetoric of Religious Antiquity 2; Atlanta: SBL Press, 2015). Pp. xxviii + 230. Paper $30.95. Roy R. Jeal has written one of the initial volumes of the Sociorhetorical Exploration Commentaries published in the Rhetoric of Religious Antiquity series. Sociorhetorical interpretation (SRI), which is defined not as a method but as an “interpretive analytic,” specifically engages the multiple “textures” of texts. These textures include inner texture, or the manner in which the text communicates; intertexture, or the ways in which the writing interacts with other texts, cultures, institutions outside of itself, as well as other textures including sacred texture, ideological texture, social and cultural texture, and sensory-aesthetic texture. The commentary also addresses “rhetography,” or the manner in which images and pictures are prompted in the minds of readers or listeners as the various textures of the text interact with one another, as well as “rhetorolects” or “emergent modes of discourse” (p. xxvii) that Christians used to express their faith and the significance of such faith for their lives. There are six major rhetorolects: wisdom, prophetic, apocalyptic, precreation, priestly, and miracle discourse. Fortunately, all of these textures and terms are defined in a glossary at the beginning of the book. Because Paul’s letter to Philemon is brief, J. states that he has the “luxury” (p. xviii) of addressing each verse of the letter multiple times using different lenses. In the introduction [End Page 715] J. indicates that the letter is deeply theological and pastoral. It is an example of the wisdom rhetorolect insofar as it focuses primarily on how early Christians were to live in the context of the ancient Mediterranean world based on their convictions that God is creator and Jesus is Lord and Christ. Christian wisdom rhetorolects developed out of a range of language and ideologies, notably those of the Israelite Scriptures, Jewish discourses, and wider Mediterranean modes of thought (p. 7) as they articulated how believers were to live together in community. Throughout the rest of the introduction J. explains his approach and addresses other issues, including the text of the letter and questions of canonicity, date, and the perennial mystery of what set of circumstances prompted Paul to write this letter in the first place. J. reviews most of the scenarios that have been posited or argued but concludes that one cannot determine exactly what set of events caused Paul to write to Philemon. Nor can we know the precise provenance or where Philemon lived, although J. leans toward Ephesus for the former and Colossae for the latter. Jeal then systematically works through the rhetography of the opening (vv. 1–7), middle (vv. 8–20), and closing (vv. 21–25) of the rhetoric of the letter. He follows the same divisions as he moves through his textural commentary, engaging multiple textures as well as the “rhetorical force as emergent discourse” in each section. Near the closing of the book he discusses his own ideology, as well as some of Paul’s ideologies, the ideology of the gospel, as well as the ideologies of love and faith, of eternity, and of abolitionism. One of the most contentious issues regarding this letter is the nature of what Paul is asking Philemon to do regarding Onesimus. Although J. admits that Paul is not explicit, he concludes, based upon his sociorhetorical analysis that the apostle wishes for Philemon to set Onesimus free. Paul wants Philemon to receive Onesimus as a brother in the context of the ekklēsia in which all members were brothers and sisters. This is a new space, a “revolutionary situation where social status is ignored in favor of love and partnership” (p. 162). Therefore, J. thinks that Paul was at least implying that Onesimus should be liberated, even if this did not mean much outside of the church. On this issue, it would be interesting to know how the insights of Mitzi Smith (“Utility, Fraternity, and Reconciliation: Ancient Slavery as a Context for the Return of Onesimus,” in Onesimus Our Brother: Reading Religion, Race...

Archaeometric analysis of Late Roman amphorae from Africa in the ancient city of Iluro (Mataró, Catalonia, Spain)

In this paper, the results of the archaeometric study of an assemblage of Late Roman amphorae, found in several contexts from the ancient city of Iluro (Mataro, Catalonia, Spain) and with a presumable origin in Roman Africa, is presented. A total of 57 samples have been analysed, by means of optical microscopy (thin-section analysis), X-ray fluorescence and X-ray diffraction, in order to obtain an integrated petrographic, chemical and mineralogical characterisation and, from this data, to shed light on their provenance. The results indicate the presence of a large number of fabrics, most of them with a Tunisian provenance; a fabric probably from Algeria was also found, as well as a few chemical-petrographic loners that should be related to a provenance out of Africa. Concerning the Tunisian fabrics, the comparison with data from production centres allows for a more precise provenance hypothesis for many of them. These results are useful for the study of the trade networks of Iluro in Late Antiquity, since they provide new evidence on the diversity of transport amphorae that were arriving to this urban centre in Hispania Tarraconensis, showing a more complex reality than initially suggested by the archaeological evidence.

Combining chemical data with GIS and PCA to investigate Phoenician–Punic Cu-metallurgy

This study focusses on the development and application of an innovative protocol which combines chemical data, GIS (geographical information system) and PCA, involving numeric (chemical composition) and categorical (typology of object, archaeological context, chronology and geographical areas) variables, as a simple tool to help in the visualisation and interpretation of large multidisciplinary datasets on Cu-based alloy archaeological artefacts influenced by Phoenician–Punic contacts. The protocol is a useful tool for highlighting existing connections between specific alloy chemical compositions, the location of the original settlement where the artefact had been produced and the proximity to mining resources, waterways, and allochthonous presence such as, in the specific case of this study, the Phoenician and Punic influence in the Iberian bronze production during the Late Bronze Age–Iron Age. The protocol was tested successfully in a case study concerning the precise dating and provenance of bronze statuettes of unknown age and provenance from the Evora Museum collection in Southern Portugal where it confirmed and further refined earlier hypotheses based solely on archaeological and/or chemical studies. The results were interpreted with a unique perspective, to validate the GIS system in combination with experimental chemical-physical data to yield the identification of metallurgical sites of bronze production.

Picturing Qājār Persia: A Gift to Major-General Henry Creswicke Rawlinson

AbstractThe focus of this essay is a photograph album that Colonel Luigi Pesce created and gave, in 1860, to the British consul in Tehran, Major‐General Sir Henry Creswicke Rawlinson. The album's 42 photographs represent some of the first‐ever taken of Nasir al‐Din Shah's court; the city gates, mosques, and vicinity of Tehran; and the ruins and reliefs of Persepolis, Naqsh‐e Rostam, and Taq‐e Bastan. Sent to Persia to secure a British presence as part of the Great Game, Rawlinson played a key role in the strategic rivalry between the British and Russian Empires, which were vying for supremacy in central Asia. Rawlinson was not only an accomplished military officer and diplomat, he was also an exceptional linguist who has been described as the father of Assyriology because his translations of the Behistun inscription enabled a collective scholarly deciphering of cuneiform. As a visual artifact with a historically precise provenance and a known maker and recipient, the Rawlinson album helps to frame th...

Petrographic and geochemical comparison between the Copper Age “Ljubljana type” axes and similar lithotypes from Eisenkappler Diabaszug complex (southern Austria)

The petrographic and geochemical features of “Ljubljana type” axes (including Lt1-3 groups), one of the largest assemblage of Copper Age stone artefacts in the Caput Adriae region made from magmatic and metamorphosed igneous rock types, have been compared to rocks specifically sampled from the Eisenkappler Diabaszug complex (southern Austria), recently considered as the most probable provenance area. Both the axes and the geological samples show similar mineralogical and petrographic features and are characterized by a common OIB-like signature, metamorphic and spilitization features. The collected data confirm that the Lt3 group originates from one outcrop located in the eastern part of the complex while the precise provenance of the Lt1-2 axes is still to be identified in the same geological area.

Representing annotation compositionality and provenance for the Semantic Web

BackgroundThough the annotation of digital artifacts with metadata has a long history, the bulk of that work focuses on the association of single terms or concepts to single targets. As annotation efforts expand to capture more complex information, annotations will need to be able to refer to knowledge structures formally defined in terms of more atomic knowledge structures. Existing provenance efforts in the Semantic Web domain primarily focus on tracking provenance at the level of whole triples and do not provide enough detail to track how individual triple elements of annotations were derived from triple elements of other annotations.ResultsWe present a task- and domain-independent ontological model for capturing annotations and their linkage to their denoted knowledge representations, which can be singular concepts or more complex sets of assertions. We have implemented this model as an extension of the Information Artifact Ontology in OWL and made it freely available, and we show how it can be integrated with several prominent annotation and provenance models. We present several application areas for the model, ranging from linguistic annotation of text to the annotation of disease-associations in genome sequences.ConclusionsWith this model, progressively more complex annotations can be composed from other annotations, and the provenance of compositional annotations can be represented at the annotation level or at the level of individual elements of the RDF triples composing the annotations. This in turn allows for progressively richer annotations to be constructed from previous annotation efforts, the precise provenance recording of which facilitates evidence-based inference and error tracking.