Premontane Forest Research Articles

Species richness, geographical affinities and activity patterns of mammals in premontane Andean forests of the Magdalena River basin of Colombia

More than half of the population of Colombia is settled in the Magdalena River basin, resulting in high deforestation rates due to productive activities and urbanisation. Within this scenario of forest loss and ecosystem degradation, it is imperative to record and monitor the biodiversity in order to decrease and mitigate the negative consequences of human activities on species and ecosystems. For six years, we assessed the mammal species richness, abundance and activity patterns in premontane forests of the Magdalena River basin in the Department of Caldas, Colombia. We also presented additional information on the geographical affinities of this fauna. We recorded 101 species, seven of them endemic to Colombia, with Chiroptera being the richest order, followed by Rodentia. Most of the species are common and not listed in threatened categories and only four are vulnerable and two endangered, according to the Red List of the IUCN and the Ministerio de Medio Ambiente y Desarrollo Sostenible of Colombia. The mammalian fauna of the study area is similar to that of other lowland localities in the Neotropics and different to the fauna in highland localities, including the nearby ones. Specifically, this fauna was most similar to that in lowland Tolima and the Caribbean Region of Colombia, Venezuela and Costa Rica; however, when we accounted only for bat fauna, it was more similar to the fauna in Caribbean and Pacific Regions of Colombia. To secure the long-term persistence of these species, we recommend maintenance of the current corridors, such as riparian forests and living fences and an increase in the forested area.

The effect of environmental variables on nightly activity patterns of insectivorous bats monitored over ten years in a tropical premontane forest, Costa Rica

ABSTRACT We investigated the role of environmental and temporal variables on the activity of 20 species of aerial insectivorous bats at a site in tropical premontane forest in Monteverde, Costa Rica. The primary study site was an opening in secondary forest adjacent to the Children’s Eternal Rainforest. We passively monitored the echolocation calls of all bats detected by an Anabat II detector all night for 1,147 nights from November 2000 through August 2010, from which we were able to identify the species in more than 250,000 bat passes. Simultaneously, we recorded environmental variables. Five species accounted for most of the activity, but the relative frequency of these species fluctuated widely over the ten-year period. The likelihood of any one of the three most common species being present was significantly influenced by wind, rain, phase of the moon, the time of night, the season of the year, and the presence of the other two species. In general, strong winds are associated with an increase in bat activity, moderate to heavy rain seems to halt bat activity, full moon appears to depress bat activity, and bats seem to be most active early in the evening. The number of bat passes at the study site declined over the ten-year period, possibly at least partially due to bat preference for foraging near bright lights, which increased markedly during the period due to development for tourism.

Comparettia bennettii (Orchidaceae: Oncidiinae), a new record for Ecuador

Comparettia bennettii, a previously known species from Peru and Bolivia, is here recorded in the premontane forests of southeastern Ecuador. We provide a Lankester Composite Digital Plate (LCDP), photos, taxonomic comments, and an updated description of the species.
 Key Words: Amazonia, Cordillera del Cóndor, premontane forests, Stigmatorthos, southeastern Ecuador, taxonomy

Predicting distributions of rare species: the case of the false coral snake Rhinobothryum bovallii (Serpentes: Colubridae)

Predicting distributions of rare species: the case of the false coral snake Rhinobothryum bovallii (Serpentes: Colubridae). Typically, the lack of enough high-quality occurrence data makes it diffcult to defne the geographic distribution of rare species. However, species distribution models provide a powerful tool for biodiversity management, including efforts to predict the distributions of rare species. Herein, new and historical data are used to model the distribution of the False Tree Coral snake, Rhinobothryum bovallii. The prediction map reveals a disjunct distribution for this species, from the Central American Isthmus to the northwestern portion of South America, with the species occupying lowlands and premontane forests below about 1500 m elevation. We identifed 491,516 km2 of suitable habitat for R. bovallii (minimum training presence threshold of 0.424) and 59,353 km2 of core habitat, with concentrations in three relatively isolated core areas (10-percentile training presence threshold of 0.396), as follow: (1) a “northern core” along the Pacifc and Caribbean coasts of Panama; (2) a “central core” in the Middle Magdalena Valley in Colombia; and (3) a “southern core” in the Ecuadorian Chocó. The occurrence of this species has a strong positive association with low precipitation seasonality, high precipitation in the warmest quarter, and low variability in annual temperature. Xeric and semiarid areas are unsuitable for this species and may pose environmental barriers limiting its distributional range. These results may lead to the discovery of additional populations of R. bovallii, identify priority survey areas, and by determining the extent of its natural habitat promote effective conservation strategies.

Trophic relationships within the genusCarollia(Chiroptera, Phyllostomidae) in a premontane forest of central Peru

AbstractAssemblages of Neotropical frugivorous bats are structured as a function of the fruit diets of species; however, ecological relationships among closely related species largely remain unknown. This study evaluated the trophic relations among three species of Carollia in a premontane forest of central Peru. To accomplish this, we first determined the diet composition of frugivorous bats to build a bat–fruit interaction network. We then assessed the trophic structure of the bat assemblage using a modularity analysis in the network. Carollia brevicauda and Carollia perspicillata were grouped apart from Carollia benkeithi. This partition occurred because the diet of C. benkeithi was more specialized, characterized by two Piper species, a Cyclanthaceae species, and Banara guianensis. Moreover, C. benkeithi, in contrast to its congeners, did not consume fruits of Ficus or Cecropia (canopy resources). This result and available information on the ecology of Carollia species suggest that small species of Carollia are more likely to carry out most of their feeding activities in the understory than are large species of the genus.

Compositional variation in understorey fern and palm communities along a soil fertility and rainfall gradient in a lower montane tropical forest

AbstractQuestionsFerns and palms are key components of tropical wet forest understories. The distributions of these groups are influenced by variation in rainfall and soil properties, although the degree to which their resource requirements overlap remains unclear. Palms and ferns also represent extremes in a spectrum of reproductive traits, which may impact habitat requirements and compositional turnover. We asked whether: (a) environmental variables influence fern and palm distributions in a similar manner across a gradient in soil nutrient availability; and (b) larger propagule size and lower reproductive output in palms result in greater spatial aggregation of populations and, consequently, greater distance–decay rates in community similarity in palms than ferns.LocationOld‐growth premontane forest, Fortuna, western Panama.MethodsAll ferns and palms were sampled in fifteen 5 m × 5 m subplots in each of 12 one‐hectare plots. The plots span a strong gradient in soil nutrient availability related to parent material. Light, precipitation and soil variables were measured in each subplot. Species associations were analyzed using ordination and regression, as well as Procrustes and Mantel tests.ResultsParent material significantly impacted compositional similarity of both ferns and palms, with fern compositional variation related to total soil N:P ratio and red:far red (R:FR), and palms with bulk density (p < 0.05). Palm and fern abundances were not correlated; however, tree fern abundances showed an opposing abundance relationship with total soil N:P and R:FR compared to herbaceous ferns and palms. Distance–decay rates in compositional similarity were slightly higher for palms than ferns.ConclusionsFerns and palms show similar patterns of compositional variation in response to resource availability but were related to distinct environmental factors. Soil fertility and light availability emerged as key factors in predicting the abundance of plant groups, with clear partitioning of environmental gradients only apparent when tree ferns were compared with other groups.

Taxonomic status of the Neotropical salamanders Bolitoglossa altamazonica and Bolitoglossa peruviana (Amphibia: Caudata: Plethodontidae), with the description of a new species from Northern Peru.

We examine the phylogenetic relationships among salamanders of the genus Bolitoglossa (Eladinea) distributed in the Amazonian basin of northern Peru and southern Ecuador and assess species diversity based on morphological and phylogenetic analyses. We infer a molecular phylogeny using sequences from two mitochondrial (Cytb, 16S) and two nuclear genes (RAG-1, POMC). We find two well-supported subclades, one including [B. altamazonica + B. peruviana] + B. awajun sp. n., and the other including Bolitoglossa sp. Ituxi + Bolitoglossa sp. Jurúa. Ecuadorian lineages form divergent clades from the Peruvian lineages. Accordingly, Ecuadorian populations previously assigned to Bolitoglossa peruviana sensu lato are treated as members of a Bolitoglossa equatoriana species complex. A newly defined Bolitoglossa altamazonica species complex contains only populations from the Amazonian rainforest of Peru. Maximum likelihood and Bayesian Inference analyses confirm the phylogenetic placement of B. altamazonica and B. peruviana, and support recognition of a related new species of Bolitoglossa. The uncorrected genetic distances between the new species and B. altamazonica are 6.5% for Cytb and 4.9% for 16S; and the uncorrected genetic distances between the new species and B. peruviana are 8.0% for Cytb and 3.9% for 16S. Additionally, analyses of nuclear gene sequences show no haplotype sharing between the new species and closely related species. The new species is distinguished from its congeners by a combination of the following morphological characters: (1) Standard length mean 37.7 mm in males (range 32.0-42.2; n=5) and 41.4 mm in females (range 34.9-48.2; n=6); (2) in life, dorsal coloration uniformly brown with a dark brown triangular marking between the eyes or some irregular light cream spots or patches on the head, back and flanks; (3) iris pale golden; (4) in preservative, dark brown venter with cream mottlings or moderate-sized blotches on the gular region, belly, cloacal region and tail; (5) tips of third finger and third toe protuberant and pointed with nearly complete webbing on the hands and feet; (6) 11-26 maxillary teeth and 8-24 vomerine teeth. Given that the syntypes of B. altamazonica are lost, we designate a neotype for B. altamazonica from Allpahuayo Mishana National Reserve, Loreto department, Peru. Newly collected specimens from ~30 km NE from Moyobamba (type locality of B. peruviana) provide a better understanding of B. peruviana and enable us to show that it is the sister taxon of B. altamazonica. The new species is known from pre-montane forests in Cordillera Escalera Regional Conservation Area, Cordillera Azul National Park and Shucshuyacu, San Martin department, Peru at 485-1311 m elevation, ~75 km SE from Moyobamba. Bolitoglossa awajun sp. n. is the fourth endemic species of salamander from Peru.

Studies in Neotropical Araliaceae. V. Sciodaphyllum zarucchii (Araliaceae), a New Species from Antioquia, Colombia, Honoring James L. Zarucchi (1952–2019)

Sciodaphyllum zarucchii M. M. Mora, Lowry, Idárraga, Jiménez-Mont. & G. M. Plunkett (Araliaceae) is described as a new species in honor of James L. Zarucchi (1952–2019). It occurs in humid premontane and montane forests on the western slope of the Cordillera Occidental in the department of Antioquia, Colombia, where it is known from only two localities, one of which is highly threatened by forest clearing. A risk of extinction assessment using the IUCN Red List criteria reveals that S. zarucchii is Endangered.

Bat-fruit networks structure resist habitat modification but species roles change in the most transformed habitats

Species do not function as isolated entities, rather they are organized in complex networks of interactions. These networks develop the ecological processes that provide ecosystem services for human societies. Understanding the causes and consequences of changes in ecological networks due to landscape modification would allow us to understand the consequences of ecological processes. However, there is still few empirical data on the effects of network characteristics on the loss of natural environments. We investigated how bat–fruit networks respond to three landscapes representing the gradient of modification from pre-montane forest to a heterogeneous agricultural landscape in the Colombian Andes (continuous forests, forest fragments, and crops). We found that forest contained smaller bat–fruit networks than forest fragments and crops. Modified landscapes had similar ecological network structures to forest (nestedness and modularity), but crops contained less specialized networks compared to forests and fragments and the species role in these habitats were changed. The networks in the rural coffee landscape maintain their structure in the different transformation scenarios, indicating that seed dispersal services are maintained even in the most transformed scenarios. Although the number of species does not decrease due to transformations, species change their roles in the most transformed habitats. This result sheds light on the way that bat-fruit networks respond to anthropogenic transformations, showing higher stability than theoretically predicted.

Bat diversity of the Serranía de San Lucas (Bolívar and Antioquia), northern Colombia

Serrania de San Lucas is an isolated mountain ridge in the Northern Andes, reaching above 2,500 masl, located between the Central and the Eastern Cordilleras in northeast Colombia, including parts of Bolivar and Antioquia departments. Due to its particular location and difficult access, there are few studies on its biological diversity. In order to clarify the geographical affinities of its bat fauna, we conducted a survey at four representative localities of this mountain range. Between 2015 and 2017, we conducted four assessments to characterize the bat species richness in San Lucas; these localities represent the dominant habitats in the area, including lowland and premontane forests, and swamps. We used three to six mist nets per night, between 17:30 and 23:00 h and identified species in the field, collecting specimens to corroborate and document the diversity in each location. Species accumulation curves and non-parametric estimators assessed efficiency of sampling; in addition, Jaccard’s similarity index was used to assess beta diversity. Each species was assigned to a trophic guild for ecological analyses and comparisons of the assemblages. We recorded 47 species from six families (Table 2), with Phyllostomidae being the most diverse (35 species). Although species richness at a local scale varied between 14 and 23 species, the heterogeneity among them shows a particular richness for San Lucas as a whole. A notable geographic record was Mimon cozumelae, which extends its known distribution in northern South America, while other four species are confirmed for the Magdalena Valley, reinforcing a trans-Andean influence. Our records reinforce a biogeographical connection with the region of Choco-Nechi-Magdalena (sensu Hernandez-Camacho et al. 1992), thus contributing to validation of the perception that San Lucas shows greater affinity to the Central Cordillera than to the Eastern one. It is evident that several groups (i. e., insectivorous) have not been fully sampled, and that new methods (diurnal roost searches and acoustical sampling) and longer survey efforts might reveal more additions to this list. Our study reveals some peculiarities in the diversity of bats of Serrania de San Lucas, including species typical of inter-Andean valleys and suggesting an influence of the trans-Andean zone, resulting in major similarities to assemblages from northwestern Colombia and South America, but with a specific composition that is indicative of the good state of conservation of the habitats in the study area and its relevance as a future, and necessary, protected area for the country.

Herd management information systems to support cattle population research: the VAMPP® case

Introduction. Livestock information systems, besides being indispensable for the daily management of the herd, can serve as a basis for research at the population level. Objective.The objective of the study was to analyze the role of the VAMPP® system as a source of information for cattle population research over 32 years of evolution in Costa Rica. Materials and methods. A statistical analysis of the system database (VAMPP®) covering the period between 1987 and 2018 was carried out. Trends in the dissemination and adoption of the system were evaluated according to period, area, production system, and herd size. The use of information for the exploration of trends by breed and area was exemplified. The contribution of the system at the academy level and production of scientific literature was quantified. Results. 2285 herds (88.8 % specialized dairy and 11.2 % dual purpose) were counted with an average of 9.4±7.9 years of follow-up in the VAMPP® system. The areas with greater diffusion were the very humid premontane forest (29 %) and very humid tropical forest (25 %). The average size of the herd was 124±255 adult cows. The system contains records on 404 316 cows, mostly of Holstein (36.3 %), Jersey (24.6 %), and Holstein×Jersey (20.9 %) breeds. The database includes information on 1,249,557 calvings, 16,223,260 records of daily milk production, and 443,108 health events, predominantly related to mastitis (35.6 %) and laminitis (14.1 %). The system has been used for the elaboration of at least 74 investigations leading to academic degrees and the production of 71 scientific articles, mainly related to health and genetic issues. Conclusion. The information obtained from the VAMPP® system has allowed a detailed characterization of the productive performance of local dairy cattle.

Altitude and species identity drive leaf litter decomposition rates of ten species on a 2950 m altitudinal gradient in Neotropical rain forests

AbstractIdentifying the environmental factors controlling litter decomposition is key to understanding the magnitude and rates of nutrient cycling in tropical forests, and how they may be influenced by climate variability and environmental change. We carried out a leaf litter translocation experiment in mature rain forest over a 2,520 m altitudinal gradient in Costa Rica. Leaf litter decomposition rates (k) of ten tree species, two dominant species from each ecosystem, plus two standard species, were calculated over 540 days in four life zones. k was lowest in montane with 0.83 per year and lower montane forests with 2.21 per year. k did not differ between lowland and premontane forests at 3.12 per year, in spite of the 3℃ difference of mean annual temperature between these life zones. k varied fourfold among species. Species decomposition rates ranked as follows, and were predictably related to leaf economic spectrum traits of the species: Acalypha communis (standard, fast decomposer)» Hyeronima oblonga > Alchornea latifolia, Quercus bumelioides, Jarava ichu (standard, slow decomposer)> Minquartia guianensis > Magnolia sororum > Vochysia allenii > Pourouma bicolor, Carapa guianensis. These two slowest‐decomposing species were native premontane and lowland forest dominants, respectively, with tough, low‐nutrient leaves. The ranking of species by k varied very little among life zones suggesting that decomposer organisms in very different ecosystems and environments react in similar ways to the litter quality in general. We conclude that while k decreases with temperature in rain forests on tropical mountains, bioclimatic zones defined as premontane may be “functionally lowland.” The effects of species identity on decomposition rates on tropical mountains are consistent and independent of environment for both standard and native species. Under climate change on these mountains, if moisture regimes do not change, decomposition rates will increase due to rising temperatures. Soil carbon storage may therefore decrease. Changes in the altitudinal distributions of currently dominant species will also affect this critically important biogeochemical process.

Differences in epiphyte biomass and community composition along landscape and within‐crown spatial scales

AbstractVascular epiphytes contribute to the structural, compositional, and functional complexity of tropical montane cloud forests because of their high biomass, diversity, and ability to intercept and retain water and nutrients from atmospheric sources. However, human‐caused climate change and forest‐to‐pasture conversion are rapidly altering tropical montane cloud forests. Epiphyte communities may be particularly vulnerable to these changes because of their dependence on direct atmospheric inputs and host trees for survival. In Monteverde, Costa Rica, we measured vascular epiphyte biomass, community composition, and richness at two spatial scales: (1) along an elevation gradient spanning premontane forests to montane cloud forests and (2) within trees along branches from inner to outer crown positions. We also compared epiphyte biomass and distribution at these scales between two different land‐cover types, comparing trees in closed canopy forest to isolated trees in pastures. An ordination of epiphyte communities at the level of trees grouped forested sites above versus below the cloud base, and separated forest versus pasture trees. Species richness increased with increasing elevation and decreased from inner to outer branch positions. Although richness did not differ between land‐cover types, there were significant differences in community composition. The variability in epiphyte community organization between the two spatial scales and between land‐cover types underscores the potential complexity of epiphyte responses to climate and land‐cover changes.Abstract in Spanish is available with online material.

Demography of the land snail Tikoconus (Tikoconus) costarricanus (Stylommatophora: Euconulidae) in tropical low montane and premontane forests, Costa Rica

Abstract. Introduction: Ecology and natural history of neotropical land snails is almost unknown. Objetive: In this paper I analyse the population dynamics of Tikoconus (Tikoconus) costarricanus Barrientos, in prep., an understory endemic euconulid. Methods: I compared T. costarricanus’ demography patterns in tropical montane forests in central Costa Rica in three habitats with different restoration techniques: a mature forest, a secondary forest and a Cuppressus lusitanica plantation. I collected data in three month periods during a year. I analysed population size in relation with habitat, sampling date, leaf litter humidity, depth and quantity; and specimen size in relation with habitat and sampling date. I also kept some specimens in terraria and described part of their natural history. Results: The species is more abundant in mature forest (Ø = 0.174 ind/m2). The number of specimens in each habitat was constant throughout the year (Kruskall-Wallis = 2.0118, p = 0.57, NS) and hatching occurs in the middle and last months of the rainy season (Kruskall-Wallis = 17.3061, p = 0.00061, **). Number of specimens is related with leaf litter humidity (Spearman correlation, r = 0.3524, n = 232, p = 0.000, **), amount (Spearman correlation, r = 0.3922, n = 232, p = 0.000, **) and depth (Spearman correlation, r = 0.2543, n = 232, p = 0.000, **). This relationship is explained by the high and stable humid environment provided by leaf litter. During the drier months some specimens migrate from the foliage to the leaf litter. Eggs (Ø = 1mm) are laid on moss or soil and the young spend the first 2 or 3 weeks of their life on moss. Egg masses are small (Ø = 4 eggs), and shells look bubbly. Egg development time (20 days) was longer than in other tropical species. Adult pigmentation appears around two months after hatch. In the only case observed egg laying began 5 months after hatching and the specimen lived 9 months. Conclusions: Although no conclusive, these data point to a fragile species susceptible to habitat and climate change. Restorations techniques should consider leaf litter features in order to protect endemic neotropical humid dependent diversity.

An emended description of Piper cochleatum and a new species of Piper (Piperaceae) from the Amazonian slopes of the Colombian Andes

Piper cochleatum is restored as a distinct species from Piper obtusilimbum, provided with an emended description, and an epitype is designated. The taxon Piper lineatipilosum is also newly synonymized under P. cochleatum. In addition, a new species, Piper caranoense is described from the Andean premontane forests on the Amazonian (eastern) slopes in Colombia. Piper caranoense can be distinguished from Piper cordulatum based on its sarmentose habit and pinnately nerved leaves in the lower third vs. shrubs or small trees with pinnately nerved leaves throughout. An illustration of each species is presented and the morphological differences with similar species are discussed in detail.

A New Species of Philothalpus Kraatz (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae) from the Andes of Colombia

A new species of the staphylinid genus Philothalpus Kraatz, 1857 from Colombia is described and illustrated. This is the first known species from the Colombian Andes and is found in the coffee region (Quindio and Risaralda departments) associated with secondary premontane forests, Guadua forests, and coffee plantations. The new species is compared with Philothalpus chloropennis Chatzimanolis and Ashe from Panama.

Shifts in the diversity of an amphibian community from a premontane forest of San Ramón, Costa Rica

Biological communities are experiencing rapid shifts of composition in Neotropical ecosystems due to several factors causing population declines. However, emerging evidence has provided insights on the adaptive potential of multiple species to respond to illnesses and environmental pressures. In Costa Rica, the decline of amphibian populations is a remarkable example of these changes. Here we provide evidence of variation in the amphibian richness of a premontane forest of San Ramón (Costa Rica) across a ~30 year period. We also quantified changes in the composition and abundance of the leaf-litter frog community occurring in the same premontane forest, by comparing diversity data with a difference of ~18 years. We evaluated the similarity of species richness from 1980s to 2010s based on several sources, and the dissimilarity of species diversity in the site comparing 28 standardized surveys from 1994-1995 and 2011-2012. We compared the relative abundance of some frogs that inhabit the leaf-litter layer between these same periods. Our results show that there is more similarity in amphibian richness between 1980s and 2010s (~ 52 %) than between 1980s and 1990s (~ 40 %). The richness of leaf-litter anurans was ~ 65 % similar between 1990s and 2010s. The diversity of leaf-litter anuran was clearly different between 1994-1995 and 2011-2012, and it was clustered among those periods. We determined that the amphibian community in this premontane forest drastically changed: many species have disappeared, or gradually declined through the decades (e.g. Pristimantis ridens, P. cruentus, Craugastor bransfordii) as in other well studied localities of Costa Rica, while some few species flourished after being almost absent from the site in the 1990s (e.g. Craugastor crassidigitus, Lithobates warszewistchii). Currently dominant species such as C. crassidigitus would be using developed resistance against Bd-fungus as an advantage (apparent competition) in the premontane forest where the disease is more virulent than in lowlands. Our analysis supports the hypothesis of individualized responses of anuran populations under distinct site and elevations. We suggest to continue monitoring the amphibian communities of premontane tropical forests to understand how this ecosystem gradually resist and adapts to this catastrophic time of biodiversity loss.

Effect of El Niño and La Niña on abundance of frugivorous and nectarivorous terrestrial birds in three tropical forests

El Niño and La Niña climatic oscillations have dramatic effects on population dynamics and community structure of different animals. For marine birds, El Niño phenomenon drastically increases their mortality and reduces their reproductive success. In terrestrial ecosystems, the lack of long-term longitudinal data limits our understanding of the impact of El Niño and La Niña on bird populations and communities. We analyzed changes in abundance of frugivorous (large, medium, and small) and nectarivorous birds on three tropical forest types (lowland, premontane and montane) during El Niño, La Niña and neutral years using data from 16 Christmas’ Bird Counts in Costa Rica. Abundance of large and medium size frugivores increased during La Niña events, and the abundance of nectarivores during El Niño in the lowland forest, but neither of these events affected the abundance of small frugivores. In the montane forest, abundance of all four bird groups increased during El Niño, but decreased during La Niña events. Abundance of large, and small frugivores increased in the premontane forest during La Niña events, but other bird groups were not affected by La Niña. The abundance of small frugivores also increased during El Niño. We hypothesize that changes in abundance of frugivores and nectarivores during La Niña and El Niño events is probably correlated with fluctuations in food resources as it has been reported for other terrestrial tropical ecosystems.

Diversity of phenological patterns of Handroanthus ochraceus (Bignoniaceae) in Costa Rica

The study of phenological patterns in plant communities is of vital importance for understanding the temporal cycles of ecosystems, but there is little information on the diversity of phenological patterns that can occur at the intraspecific level, as well as the genetic or environmental factors causing this variation. In Handroanthus ochraceus, a deciduous tree species of neotropical dry forests, ecophysiological studies have proposed the release of water stress as the mechanism that triggers flowering and the sprouting of new leaves. During four years, I observed the cycles of leaf fall, flowering, fruiting, and new leaf production in seven Costa Rican sites that differed in their proximity to water courses and in soil moisture. Six were located in dry forest areas, and one in premontane forest. There were two general phenological patterns: the explosive, where trees depend on the first rains for floral anthesis and the expansion of leaf meristems, and the staggered pattern, with unsynchronized flowering at the beginning and middle of the dry season, independently of rainfall. Although this phenological variation has been previously recognized, the occurrence of these two patterns is not determined by the proximity of water courses, contradicting phenological models proposed for this tree species.

Priogymnanthus colombianus (Oleaceae), a new species and first record of genus to Colombia

Priogymnanthus colombianus, a new species and the first record of the South American genus of Oleaceae for Colombia is described and illustrated also we present a dichotomic key for the known species of genus. The new species differs from the three knowns for Priogymnanthus by: leaves oblong or oblong-elliptic, completely glabrous, petioles 10–17 (19) mm; inflorescences 15–20 (25) mm in length, with glabrous rachis, anthers about 3 mm length; fruits (10) 12–15 mm in diameter. P. colombianus occurs on premontane and dry forest in Colombia between 719 and 1213 m of elevation. Based on general threats to its ecosystems and few records found, we categorize the species as EN (endangered) following IUCN criteria.