Pre-activation Phase Research Articles

Neurophysiological correlates of interpersonal discrepancy and social adjustment in an interactive decision-making task in dyads.

The pursuit of convergence and the social behavioral adjustment of conformity are fundamental cooperative behaviors that help people adjust their mental frameworks to reach a common goal. However, while social psychology has extensively studied conformity by its influence context, there is still plenty to investigate about the neural cognitive mechanisms involved in this behavior. We proposed a paradigm with two phases, a pre-activation phase to enhance cooperative tendencies and, later, a social decision-making phase in which dyads had to make a perceptual estimation in three consecutive trials and could converge in their decisions without an explicit request or reward to do so. In Study 1, 80 participants were divided in two conditions. In one condition participants did the pre-activation phase alone, while in the other condition the two participants did it with their partners and could interact freely. In Study 2, we registered the electroencephalographical (EEG) activity of 36 participants in the social decision-making phase. Study 1 showed behavioral evidence of higher spontaneous convergence in participants who interacted in the pre-activation phase. Event related Potentials (ERP) recorded in Study 2 revealed signal differences in response divergence in different time intervals. Time-frequency analysis showed theta, alpha, and beta evidence related to cognitive control, attention, and reward processing associated with social convergence. Current results support the spontaneous convergence of behavior in dyads, with increased behavioral adjustment in those participants who have previously cooperated. In addition, neurophysiological components were associated with discrepancy levels between participants, and supported the validity of the experimental paradigm to study spontaneous social behavioral adaptation in experimental settings.

Bilateral neuromuscular control in patients one year after unilateral ACL rupture or reconstruction. A cross-sectional study

ObjectivesTo compare bilateral neuromuscular control in patients one year after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction (ACL-R) or conservative treatment (ACL-C) to healthy controls (ACL-I). DesignCross-sectional study. SettingElectromyography of vastus medialis (VM) and lateralis (VL), biceps femoris (BF) and semitendinosus (ST) was recorded during stair descent and anterior tibial translation. Each step of stair descent was divided into pre-activity, weight-acceptance and push-off phase. Pre-activation, short, medium (MLR) and long latency responses (LLR) were defined for reflex activity. ParticipantsN = 38 patients one year after ACL reconstruction (ACL-R), N = 26 participants with conservative treatment one year after ACL rupture (ACL-C), N = 38 healthy controls with an intact ACL (ACL-I). Main outcome measuresNormalized root mean squares per muscle and phase (α = 0.05). ResultsDuring stair descent, within-group leg differences were found for the quadriceps in ACL-R during all phases and for the BF in ACL-C during weight-acceptance. Between-group leg differences were found for BF in both patient groups compared to ACL-I during push-off.Between-group differences in pre-activation for VM between ACL-R and ACL-C, and between ACL-C and ACL-I were found, and as LLR between patients and ACL-R versus ACL-I. Pre-activation of BF and MLR of ST differed for each patient group compared to ACL-I. ConclusionsBilateral neuromuscular alterations are still present one year after ACL rupture or reconstruction.

Psychological determinants of consumption of reusable containers for takeaway food and drinks.

Using food and drink disposable containers has heavy environmental and economic consequences. The widespread adoption of reusable containers is a challenge that requires understanding the psychological determinants and barriers of the behaviour. Two studies were conducted: one with a sample from the general public (study 1, N = 302) and one with respondents having access to a reusable container system at work (study 2, N = 737). Online surveys measured self-reported use of single-use and reusable containers for food and drinks takeaway (studies 1 and 2) and for food delivery (study 1). Stages of change and psychological determinants were also measured to provide behavioural levers. Results indicate that in study 1, most of the sample is aware of the issue associated with single-use containers but has not switched to reusable. In study 2, most respondents say they are already using few single-use and are willing to continue, particularly for drinks to go. Thus, accessibility at the workplace to a reusable container system is associated with higher stages of change. However, many respondents are also in the preactional phase for food takeaway, that is, willing to change but have not started yet. In both studies, perception of control on the behaviour and volitional variables are positively associated with stages of change. This suggests that making reusable containers easier to use and helping individuals plan how and when they can do it could encourage behaviour change.

Դիտարկումներ Արցախյան 44-օրյա պատերազմի ընթացքում իրանական լրատվական, փորձագիտական և պաշտոնական արձագանքների վերաբերյալ

The article presents in detail the reactions of the Iranian side and the publications of official positions during the 44-day Nagorno-Karabakh war. Mainly, the messages of the official news agency "IRNA" are presented in translation, which include the positions of the officials of the Islamic Republic of Iran (IRI), as well as some experts and journalistic comments. With the presented chronology, it is interesting to observe the views expressed by the Iranian side during the hot combat operations. The article is conventionally divided into pre-activation phase, proposal program and position formation of the Iranian side. The conclusion section also refers to some of the most important events that took place after the hostilities. The study can make Iran's policy in the South Caucasus, particularly towards Armenia and Azerbaijan, more understandable.

Pedagogical Accountability of Teachers in Community Schools of Nepal: Lessons from a Case Study

The teacher's instructional guideline provided by the National Curriculum Framework of Nepal for pedagogical accountability is insufficient to enhance the student's classroom performance. The main objective of this study is to assess science teachers' efficiency in enhancing students' learning with a focus on the basic pedagogical accountability in community schools of Tikapur Municipality. A qualitative study among two groups of stakeholders:, science teachers and principals of three different institutions, was conducted by including a three-phase conceptual model: the pre-active phase, the interactive phase, and the post-active phase. Based on the interpretive philosophical research paradigm, information was gathered through in-depth semi-structured interviews and observation of science classroom activities. The operationalization of accountability assessment was further done by observing the methods of classroom teaching, goal management, and choice of teaching methodology by the teachers, and the use of different techniques by the teachers to motivate students and create an effective teaching environment. We found that intervention in all three phases of science teaching brought positive and effective changes among science teachers when they were committed to students and adopted innovative teaching with clear planning. The study also showed that teachers' accountability can be measured through teacher skills, techniques, and strategies reflecting innovation and inquisitiveness in and out of the classroom. Overall, especially in science subjects, practical sessions were found highly impactful on students’ learning and understanding of basic knowledge of science particularly when they were associated with daily activities and were taught with necessary scaffolding.

Effects of gender and fatigue on strength and activity of gluteus medius muscle during a controlled cutting maneuver in preadolescent athletes

The present study aimed to investigate the effects of gender on hip muscle strength and activity during a controlled cutting maneuver in preadolescent athletes. Fifty-six football and handball preadolescent players participated (35 females and 21 males). Normalized mean activity of the gluteus medius (GM) muscle was measured using surface electromyography during cutting maneuvers in pre-activation and eccentric phases. The stance duration and the strength of hip abductors and external rotators were recorded with a force plate and a handheld dynamometer, respectively. Descriptive statistics and mixed model analysis were used to assess statistical difference (α=0.05). The results showed that boys activate the GM muscle significantly more than girls during the pre-activation phase (P=0.022). Boys also demonstrated greater normalized strength of hip external rotation than girls (P=0.038), but not for hip abduction or duration of stance (P>0.05). When adjusted for abduction strength, however, boys had significantly shorter stance duration than girls (P=0.006). It seems that sex-dependent differences are present in preadolescent athletes as observed in the strength of hip external rotator muscles and neuromuscular activity of the GM muscle during a cutting maneuver. Future studies are needed to investigate whether these changes influence risk of lower limb/ACL injury during sport activities.

A Comparative Study on Neuromuscular Control Patterns during Side Cutting Depending on Direction Prediction Presence or Absence and Gender

PURPOSE This study aimed to identify the lower limb muscle activity based on direction prediction presence or absence and gender during side cutting in healthy college students. METHODS The study participants included 14 healthy males and females (8 males; 6 females). All participants ran at full speed for a distance of 12m, and side-cutting was carried out at 45 degrees in a randomly indicated direction and in a fixed direction. Simultaneously, data regarding vastus medialis, vastus lateralis, semitendinosus, and biceps femoris muscle activity of the dominant leg were collected using an electromyography sensor, and data regarding vertical acceleration were collected using an inertial sensor attached to the pelvis. A sync webcam was used for obtaining the initial contact of side cutting and the stance period time. During the 10 milliseconds (pre-activation) prior to the initial contact and 50% of the stance phase (loading phase), vastus medialis, vastus lateralis, semitendinosus, and biceps femoris average muscle activity and hamstring to quadriceps ratio included as variables. RESULTS During the pre-activation and loading phase, the vastus medialis muscle activity of the male group was higher in the unexpected condition than in the expected condition. Furthermore, hamstring to quadriceps ratio was confirmed to be lower under unexpected condition compared to under expected condition during on loading phase. CONCLUSIONS The study results suggest that the risk of anterior cruciate ligament injury may increase with side cutting under unpredictable conditions. It is expected to provide useful information for identifying factors related to knee injury in the general population.

Neuromuscular Control During Stair Descent and Artificial Tibial Translation After Acute ACL Rupture.

Background:Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) rupture has direct effect on passive and active knee stability and, specifically, stretch-reflex excitability.Purpose/Hypothesis:The purpose of this study was to investigate neuromuscular activity in patients with an acute ACL deficit (ACL-D group) compared with a matched control group with an intact ACL (ACL-I group) during stair descent and artificially induced anterior tibial translation. It was hypothesized that neuromuscular control would be impaired in the ACL-D group.Study Design:Cross-sectional study; Level of evidence, 3.Methods:Surface electromyographic (EMG) activity of the vastus medialis (VM), vastus lateralis (VL), biceps femoris (BF), and semitendinosus (ST) muscles was recorded bilaterally in 15 patients with ACL-D (mean, 13.8 days [range, 7-21 days] since injury) and 15 controls with ACL-I during stair descent and artificially induced anterior tibial translation. The movements of stair descent were divided into preactivity, weight acceptance, and push-off phases. Reflex activity during anterior tibial translation was split into preactivity and short, medium, and late latency responses. Walking on a treadmill was used for submaximal EMG normalization. Kruskal-Wallis test and post hoc analyses with Dunn-Bonferroni correction were used to compare normalized root mean square values for each muscle, limb, movement, and reflex phase between the ACL-D and ACL-I groups.Results:During the preactivity phase of stair descent, the hamstrings of the involved leg of the ACL-D group showed 33% to 51% less activity compared with the matched leg and contralateral leg of the ACL-I group (P < .05). During the weight acceptance and push-off phases, the VL revealed a significant reduction (approximately 40%) in the involved leg of the ACL-D group compared with the ACL-I group. At short latency, the BF and ST of the involved leg of the ACL-D group showed a significant increase in EMG activity compared with the uninvolved leg of the ACL-I group, by a factor of 2.2 to 4.6.Conclusion:In the acute phase after an ACL rupture, neuromuscular alterations were found mainly in the hamstrings of both limbs during stair descent and reflex activity. The potential role of prehabilitation needs to be further studied.

IMPACT OF TEACHING PROCESS ON ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT OF PRIMARY SCHOOL STUDENTS IN TEHRI GARHWAL, UTTARAKHAND

Teaching is an important and integral part of the process of education. It is a social process. It is a tripolar process which includes teacher, student and the curriculum. Teaching is the process of exchange of ideas or mutual interaction between the teacher and the learner by making the curriculum as a medium. It is fundamentally a process which includes planning, implementation, evaluation and revision. Phases of teaching process includes the pre active phase, inter active phase and after active phase. A study of the teaching process is important because it impacts the learning outcomes. This present study reflects the actual status of teaching process in primary schools of Tehri Garhwal, Uttarakhand and studies its impact on the academic achievement of primary school students.

Metaconceptual activities of pre-service science teachers about the design of process to teach science concept

ABSTRACT This study aims to determine pre-service science teachers’ metaconceptual activities about the design of processes to teach science concepts in their pre-active phase. A single-case design was used. The eight pre-service science teachers participated in this study. An activity journal and an instruction process evaluation developed by the researcher and worksheets prepared by the pre-service science teachers were used as data collection tools. An inductive and comparative analysis was used to determine in detail the metaconceptual activities of the participants regarding the design of science concepts teaching practices in the pre-active phase. The main results are that (a) they performed various metaconceptual activities such as awareness, planning, monitoring and evaluation regarding their own learning, their tasks and their task performance, (b) they had a higher tendency to perform metacognitive activities for task and task performance and had a lower tendency to perform metacognitive activities for their own learning, (c) the activities they performed could differ based on science topic. As a suggestion, studies can be conducted to determine their metaconceptual activities in the interactive phase and in the post-active phase and to compare three phases of teaching to give an idea of integrating metacognition into teacher education.

Differences in Vertical Performance Caused by Drop Jumping on Surfaces with Different Stiffness

It is well established that muscle activation regulates leg stiffness to optimize stretch shortening cycle (SSC) performance. There is a significant interaction between the surface properties, muscle activation and leg stiffness. The aim of this study was to examine the potentiating adjustments after drop jumps (DJs) executed on two surfaces with different elasticity. Twenty-two adults randomly performed 3 protocols: Protocols with three pre-conditioning DJs performed on a springboard (PSB), Protocol (PG) with three pre-conditioning DJs performed on a stiff ground surface and Protocol without any type of pre-conditioning (C). Vertical jump performance was evaluated at four time points: before (COND0), immediately after pre-conditioning (COND10), and after 1 (COND60) and 2 min (COND120) of rest. Dynamics, kinematics and electromyographic parameters of the ankle were evaluated. ANOVA with repeated measures revealed statistically significant increase in Hpeak, Ppeak and Kleg was observed (p&lt;0.05), over split-intervals and rest periods for Protocol (PSB) while no differences were recorded in jump kinematics. Both protocols (PSB and PG) significantly decreased CI during the pre-activation and eccentric phase, whereas the CI was increased during the concentric phase. The positive effect observed in jump performance could not be attributed to co-activity of the ankle joint, indicating that jumping on an elastic surface, may be beneficial in cases where increased leg stiffness is a determining factor for final performance.

Representations and Realization of Written Planning of PSE Teachers in Tunisia

Planning is an act of anticipation carried out by the teacher during the pre-active phase to prioritize the pedagogical and didactic teaching approaches. On the other hand, in the teaching field, the teaching-learning situation is also complex to be identified by simple planning. In this study, we seek to explain the influence of gender and the seniority of physical education and sports (PSE) teachers on representations of written lesson planning and its management in the field. We collaborated with 20 PSE teachers and 10 trainee students in initial training in secondary schools. We filmed practical sessions and we carried out two types of interviews with the participants and we analyzed the content of the written plans of the participants in our experiment. Our results show that the professional seniority and the gender of the PSE teacher do not modulate the representations that are made of the written planning of the lesson. However, in practice, the teacher's representations of written planning are not always consistent with their realization on the ground. The difference between teachers' representations of the PSE teacher's written planning and their teaching practices is dependent on the professional seniority and gender of the acting person. The actions of the actor are shaped by the aspects inherent in the learning situation, the actions of the teacher are therefore contextualized.

CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT APPLIED BY ENGLISH TEACHER AT NINTH GRADE IN THE STATE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL 7 JAMBI

The purpose of this study was to explore the classroom management techniques utilized by the English teacher at the ninth grade level at the state junior high school 7 in Jambi. The descriptive qualitative research approach was utilized in this study, and the methods of data collection were observation, interviewing, and documentation. During the pre-activity phase, the teacher ensured that the students were prepared for the activity by ensuring that they were comfortable. The instructor also organized the seating for the students, ensured that the whiteboard and any other necessary equipment was in the appropriate location, and managed the students by providing a different manner of instruction at each meeting. During the process of learning, the instructor has the ability to foster an environment that is conducive to learning and can construct things that are constructive in order to achieve the best possible results from the learning process.

Coping Strategies for Overcoming Stress in Atypical Situations

The article analyzes the specifics of coping strategies for overcoming stress used by people who perceive the atypical situations of forced isolation, including the COVID-19 pandemic, in a different way. An empirical study conducted with the use of corresponding psychodiagnostic techniques (Extended Life orientation test; SACS) found that people who are optimistic about restrictions and atypical life situations are prone to use assertive actions and enter into social contacts. Whereas people who are pessimistic about the future have a less pronounced tendency to seek social support. The study confirmed that proactive coping in atypical life situations (including forced isolation) is associated with the relevant individual psychological characteristics, which are important for motivating social activities. Such personality expressions can contribute to the implementation of proactive coping and they are key factors in the pre-actional phase of goal-setting because proactive people focus not on the obstacles, but on solving problems. It is also suggested that proactive instructions can be a resource that enhances an individual’s desire for a higher standard of living.

Electromyographic activity of the vastus medialis and gastrocnemius implicates a slow stretch-shortening cycle during rowing in the field

The consideration of the temporal and electromyographic (EMG) characteristics of stretch-shortening cycles (SSC) are crucial for the conceptualization of discipline-specific testing and training. Since leg muscles are first stretched (eccentric) and then contracted (concentric) during rowing, it can be assumed that the entire muscle tendon complex performs a SSC. Thus, it should be elucidated whether the rowing cycle can be attributed to either a slow or fast SSC. Therefore, EMG of the vastus medialis and gastrocnemius were captured (n = 10, 22.8 ± 3.1 years, 190 ± 6 cm, 82.1 ± 9.8 kg) during (single scull) rowing and subsequently compared to typical slow (countermovement jump, CMJ) and fast (drop jump, DJ) SSCs. The elapsed time between the EMG onset and the start of the eccentric phase was monitored. The pre-activation phase (PRE, before the start of the eccentric phase) and the reflex-induced activation phase (RIA 30–120 ms after the start of the eccentric phase) have been classified. Notable muscular activity was observed during DJ before the start of the eccentric phase (PRE) as well as during RIA. In contrast, neither CMJ nor rowing revealed any EMG-activity in these two phases. Interestingly, CMJ and race-specific rowing showed an EMG-onset during the eccentric phase. We conclude that rowing is more attributable to a slow SSC and implies that fast SSC does not reflect discipline specific muscle action and could hamper rowing-performance-enhancement.

From potential to early nascent entrepreneurship: the role of entrepreneurial competencies

Entrepreneurial intention has been observed to be a necessary, but insufficient, condition for new business creation. Another variable apart from intention that requires consideration is how potential entrepreneurs perceive their own capacity or ability to exercise control over entrepreneurial behaviour. Drawing on the Rubicon model of action phases, this paper analyses the role of the perceived entrepreneurial competencies in the preactional phase of the entrepreneurial process. This corresponds to the moment when individuals have formed their entrepreneurial intention and must embark on how to implement it. A structural equations modelling analysis on a sample of undergraduate business students in their final year who manifest an intention to start up a new business after graduation served both to analyse the relationship between entrepreneurial competencies and gestation behaviour and determine the moderating role of competencies in the relationship between the intention and nascent activities. The findings reveal that entrepreneurial intention and competencies related to commitment, planning and organisation have a significant and direct influence on nascent entrepreneurial behaviour and that the whole set of entrepreneurial competency factors enhances the relationship between entrepreneurial intention and entrepreneurial gestation activities. This paper provides a comprehensive analysis of the role of entrepreneurial competencies in the transition from intention to early nascent business gestation and addresses a valuable and relatively unexplored line of research concerning the interaction effects of intention and perceived competencies on the performance of entrepreneurial gestation activities. The paper also delves into the practical implications for designers of entrepreneurship support and education programmes.

Examination of the Effects of Kinesiotape and IQ Tape on Neuromuscular Activity during Running, Stair Climbing and DropJumps

Kinesiotape application is said to have positive effects, e. g. metabolism-stimulating, decongesting, invigorating and analgesic effects, during exercise. The aim of this intervention study with a within-subject design was to examine the effects of different elastic tapes (Kinesiotape - KT, IQ-Tape - IQ, without tape: OT) on the neuromuscular activation of the flexor and extensor chain of the lower extremity when jogging, climbing stairs and performing drop jumps. Eighteen healthy adults (5 males and 13females) with mean age of 26.29 ± 3.57 years and a body mass index of 22.3 ± 0.7 kg/m2 were recruited. The participants performed stair climbing, drop jumping and running at 10 km/h, 12 km/h and 15 km/h. Muscle activation of the vastus medialis and lateralis and biceps femoris and semitendinosus muscles, tibialis anterior muscle, gastrocnemius medialis and lateralis muscle were assessed to record the ratio of muscle activation of the anterior tibial muscle and the gastrocnemius medialis and lateralis muscles (T/G ratio) and the ratio of muscle activation of the vastus medialis and lateralis muscles and the biceps femoris and semitendinosus muscles (Q/Iratio) at the time before (-150 to 0 ms pre), during (0-30 ms post) and from 30 ms to 150 ms after the first ground contact by means of electromyographic measurements. The statistical analysis was carried out by means of the non-parametric L Puri Sen method. The significance level was set to < 0.05. Two participants withdrew from the study. The raw data of 16 participants was analysed. During climbing down stairs, IQT shows a significantly better T/G ratio in the pre-activation phase (-150 to 0 ms) compared with no tape (p = 0.01). The comparison of the remaining applications with KT, IQT and no tape revealed no significant differences (p < 0.05) CONCLUSION: It can be assumed that Kinesiotape (KT) und IQ-Tape (IQ) do not cause any relevant detectable changes in muscle activation in healthy individuals. Future studies should include patients with pathologically altered neuromuscular control.

A Literature Review on Psychosocial Support for Disaster Responders: Qualitative Synthesis with Recommended Actions for Protecting and Promoting the Mental Health of Responders.

Little scientific evidence exists on ways to decrease the psychological stress experienced by disaster responders, or how to maintain and improve their mental health. In an effort to grasp the current state of research, we examined research papers, agency reports, the manuals of aid organisations, and educational materials, in both English and Japanese. Using MEDLINE, Ichushi-Web (Japanese search engine), Google Scholar, websites of the United Nations agencies, and the database of the Grants System for Japan’s Ministry of Health, Labour, and Welfare, 71 pertinent materials were identified, 49 of which were analysed. As a result, 55 actions were extracted that could potentially protect and improve the mental health of disaster responders, leading to specific recommendations. These include (1) during the pre-activity phase, enabling responders to anticipate stressful situations at a disaster site and preparing them to monitor their stress level; (2) during the activity phase, engaging in preventive measures against on-site stress; (3) using external professional support when the level of stress is excessive; and (4) after the disaster response, getting back to routines, sharing of experiences, and long-term follow-up. Our results highlighted the need to offer psychological support to disaster responders throughout the various phases of their duties.

Lanthanum modified bentonite behaviour and efficiency in adsorbing phosphate in saline waters

Lanthanum-modified bentonite (LMB, commercially called Phoslock®) has been widely applied in freshwater systems to manage eutrophication. Little is known, however, about its behaviour and efficiency in binding filterable reactive phosphorus (FRP) in saline environments. We assessed if LMB would adsorb phosphate over a range of salinities (0–32 ppth) comparing the behaviour in seawater salts and equivalent concentrations of NaCl. Lanthanum release from the bentonite matrix was measured and the La species prevailing in saline environments were evaluated through chemical equilibrium modelling. We demonstrated that LMB was able to adsorb FRP in all the salinities tested. Filterable lanthanum (FLa) concentrations were similarly low (<5 μgL−1) at all seawater salinities but considerably elevated, on occasion >2000 times greater in equivalent NaCl salinities. Mineralogical analysis indicates that La present in the clay interlayer was (partially) replaced by Na/Ca/Mg present in the seawater and a possible secondary P-reactive phase was formed, such as kozoite (LaCO3OH) or lanthanite (La2(CO3)3·8H2O) that may be physically dissociated from the LMB. Geochemical modelling also indicates that most FLa dissociated from LMB would be precipitated as a carbonate complex. In light of the identification of reactive intermediate phases, further studies including ecotoxicologial assays are required to assess any deleterious effects from the application of LMB to saline waters.

Biomechanical Characteristics of Single Leg Jump in Collegiate Basketball Players Based on Approach Technique

Our study investigated the characteristics of the biomechanics of lower extremities during running single leg jump (RSJ) in collegiate basketball players. Twelve division III male basketball players voluntarily participated in this study. They performed three trials of the running single leg jump with two approach speeds (fast and preferred) randomly. The kinematic data were collected by motion analysis system (200 Hz), and kinetic data were collected using the AMTI force platform (1000 Hz), and electromyography (EMG) data were recorded by the Delsys surface Electromyography (EMG) system (2000 Hz). Kinematic, kinetic and EMG signal were synchronized using EvaRT 4.6. Peak Ground reaction force, eccentric loading rate (ELR), gastrocnemius (GA) of pre-activation phase, and tibialis anterior (TA) of push-off phase were found significantly larger in the fast approach speed (p &lt; 0.05). RSJ improves muscle activation level and stretch reflex. Higher activation of TA and GA during RSJ may have the benefit of decreasing risk of injury and jump training. Thus, it is helpful in muscle stretch adaptation.