Prairie Ecosystem Research Articles

A survey of invasive plants on grassland soil microbial communities and ecosystem services

Invasive plants can cause changes in the structure and function of the ecosystem being invaded. Any changes in ecosystem diversity and community composition will likely alter ecosystem services provided by that ecosystem. However, how these ecosystem services may change is poorly understood. To elucidate how these ecosystem services will change with invasion, we sampled 561 plots undergoing invasion by smooth brome (Bromus inermis) and four other invasive species at a native Rough Fescue prairie located near Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada. Soil and plant surveys were undertaken weekly for 26 weeks between May of 2014 and November of 2014, or the growing season. We measured a suite of ecosystem services, including greenhouse gasses, extracellular enzyme function, forage production, glyphosate degradation and decomposition. Furthermore, soil physical and chemical properties were measured, and soil bacterial and fungal communities were sequenced. This is a large and multifaceted dataset with complex temporal and spatial attributes which can be used to answer numerous questions regarding the functioning of prairie ecosystems and how invasive species will impact that functioning.

The gut bacterial communities across six grasshopper species from a coastal tallgrass prairie

Insect microbiomes play an important role in the health and fitness of insect hosts by contributing to nutrient absorption, immune health, and overall ecological fitness. As such, research interests in insect microbiomes have focused on agriculturally and industrially important organisms such as honey bees and termites. Orthopterans, on the other hand, have not been well explored for their resident microbial communities. Grasshoppers are an integral part of grassland ecosystems and provide important ecosystem services. Conversely, grasshoppers can be an agricultural pest requiring management with broad spectrum pesticides. However, little is known about the microbiomes of grasshoppers and their potential contribution to grasshopper biology. Here we examine the gut microbiome of six species of grasshoppers (n = 60) from a coastal tallgrass prairie ecosystem to gain a better understanding of the microbial communities present across the orthopteran order in this ecosystem. We found that there are bacterial phyla common to all six grasshopper species: Actinobacteria, Proteobacteria, Firmicutes, and to a lesser degree, Tenericutes. Although the grasshopper species shared a high relative abundance of these groups, there were notable shifts in dominant phyla depending on the grasshopper species. Moreover, measures of alpha diversity revealed a more diverse microbiome in males than females. Our observations support the hypothesis that there is a “core” group of bacterial families in these grasshopper species and factors such as trophic behaviors and the evolution of the host may contribute to the shifts in prevalence among these core microbial groups.

White-Tailed Deer in Tallgrass Prairie: Novel Densities of a Native Herbivore in Managed Ecosystems

White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) are now the dominant large herbivores in tallgrass prairie ecosystems of the U.S. Midwest and have unique ecological impacts compared to the historically dominant bison (Bison bison) and elk (Cervus elaphus) that were extirpated from this region. While most of our knowledge of white-tailed deer impacts on plant communities and ecosystem processes comes from forested habitats, relatively little research has focused on deer effects in prairies. In this review, we discuss the ecological impacts of white-tailed deer in North American tallgrass prairies, potential deer management strategies, and areas of future research.Unlike bison and elk, deer are selective grazers that preferentially eat nutrient-rich forbs. At high deer densities, this consumption of forbs can have negative effects on prairie biodiversity and alter nutrient cycling. Deer can decrease plant diversity by reducing the abundance and reproductive success of their preferred plant species, shifting the plant community to one dominated by species avoided by deer or tolerant of herbivory.At lower densities, deer may maintain biodiversity in accordance with the intermediate disturbance hypothesis. Deer are able to maintain a balance between deer-avoided and deer-preferred species abundance by giving unpreferred or herbivory-tolerant species an advantage, but not completely suppressing herbivory-sensitive species. Nonconsumptive deer impacts also influence prairies through transporting invasive species, trampling on deer trails, and redistributing nutrients in fecal pellets and carcasses. Management strategies such as hunting, use of fences, and patch-burning can alleviate the pressures of overabundant deer populations, while maintaining their ability to promote heterogeneity.

Flowering leafy spurge (Euphorbia esula) detection using unmanned aerial vehicle imagery in biological control sites: Impacts of flight height, flight time and detection method

AbstractLeafy spurge, a noxious perennial weed, is a major threat to the prairie ecosystem in North America. Strategic planning to control leafy spurge requires monitoring its spatial distribution and spread. The ability to detect flowering leafy spurge at two biological control sites in southern Saskatchewan, Canada, was investigated using an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) system. Three flight missions were conducted on June 30, 2016, during the leafy spurge flowering period. Imagery was acquired at four flight heights and one or two acquisition times, depending on the site. The sites were reflown on June 28, 2017, to evaluate the change in flowering leafy spurge over time. Mixture tuned matched filtering (MTMF) and hue, intensity, and saturation (HIS) threshold analyses were used to determine flowering leafy spurge cover. Flight height of 30 m was optimal; the strongest relationships between UAV and ground estimates of leafy spurge cover (r2 = 0.76 to 0.90; normalized root mean square error [NRMSE] = 0.10 to 0.13) and stem density (r2 = 0.72 to 0.75) were observed. Detection was not significantly affected by the image analysis method (P > 0.05). Flowering leafy spurge cover estimates were similar using HIS (1.9% to 14.8%) and MTMF (2.1% to 10.3%) and agreed with the ground estimates (using HIS: r2 = 0.64 to 0.93, NRMSE = 0.08 to 0.25; using MTMF: r2 = 0.64 to 0.90, NRMSE = 0.10 to 0.27). The reduction in flowering leafy spurge cover between 2016 and 2017 detected using UAV images and HIS (8.1% at site 1 and 2.7% at site 2) was consistent with that based on ground digital photographs (10% at site 1 and 1.8% at site 2). UAV imagery is a useful tool for accurately detecting flowering leafy spurge and could be used for routine monitoring purposes in a biological control program.

SENTINEL COYOTE PATHOGEN SURVEY TO ASSESS DECLINING BLACK-FOOTED FERRET (MUSTELA NIGRIPES) POPULATION IN SOUTH DAKOTA, USA.

As part of the national recovery effort, endangered black-footed ferrets (Mustela nigripes) were reintroduced to the Cheyenne River Sioux Reservation in South Dakota, US in 2000. Despite an encouraging start, numbers of ferrets at the site have declined. In an effort to determine possible causes of the population decline, we undertook a pathogen survey in 2012 to detect exposure to West Nile virus (WNV), canine distemper virus (CDV), plague (Yersinia pestis), tularemia (Francisella tularensis), and heartworm (Dirofilaria immitis) using coyotes (Canis latrans) as a sentinel animal. The highest seroprevalence was for WNV with 71% (20/28) of coyotes testing antibody-positive. Seroprevalence of CDV and plague were lower, 27% and 13%, respectively. No evidence of active infection with tularemia or heartworm was seen in the coyotes sampled. As this study did not sample black-footed ferrets themselves, the definitive cause for the decline of this population cannot be determined. However, the presence of coyotes seropositive for two diseases, plague and CDV, lethal to black-footed ferrets, indicated the potential for exposure and infection. The high seroprevalence of WNV in the coyotes indicated a wide exposure to the virus; therefore, exposure of black-footed ferrets to the virus is also likely. Due to the ability of WNV to cause fatal disease in other species, studies may be useful to elucidate the impact that WNV could have on the success of reintroduced black-footed ferrets as well as factors influencing the spread and incidence of the disease in a prairie ecosystem.

Great Plains Ranchers Managing for Vegetation Heterogeneity: A Multiple Case Study

Grasslands are some of the most endangered ecosystems in the world because of row- crop expansion, urban expansion, encroachment of invasive trees and shrubs, and climate change, among other factors. Ecologists emphasize the need for vegetation heterogeneity within remaining grasslands as an important indicator of ecosystem health. Because private landowners are the predominant managers of grasslands in the Great Plains, the owners' assistance in maintaining and restoring prairie ecosystems is essential. This study explicates four ranches within the Great Plains whose owners manage specifically for heterogeneity. Multiple case study analysis revealed three themes: (1) managing a prairie ecosystem is not the same as running a pasture, (2) good grassland management is good for everyone, and (3) partnerships are critical. Findings from rancher interviews suggest that it takes more than a mindset to conserve and restore the prairie—it takes proactive management for vegetation heterogeneity. The four ranchers participating in this study consider livestock production compatible with managing for vegetation heterogeneity. Managing for a broader suite of species is considered mutually beneficial to their business.

Prairie Restoration Effects on Near-Surface Soil Nutrient Changes Over Time in the Ozark Highlands Region of Northwest Arkansas

The Ozark Highlands is a unique botanical transition zone where native prairie and forest once co-existed, but conversion to managed agricultural landuse has severely reduced the extent of native tallgrass prairie. Quantifying soil nutrient changes over time can contribute to improved understanding of the importance of soil fertility in prairie restoration success. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of prairie ecosystem [i.e., chronosequence of four prairie restorations and a native prairie (NP)] and soil moisture regime (SMR; aquic and udic) on the change in extractable soil nutrients over a 12-yr period from 2005 to 2017 in the Ozark Highlands region of northwest Arkansas. Soil Ca content decreased over time (P ≤ 0.05) in the 17-year-old-aquic and NP-udic combinations, which did not differ and averaged ?55.7 kg?ha?1?yr?1, but did not change over time in all other ecosystem-SMR combinations. Soil Na content also decreased over time (P ≤ 0.05) in the 17-year-old-aquic combination (?0.7 kg?ha?1?yr?1), but did not change over time in any of the other ecosystem-SMR combinations. Averaged across SMR, soil P content decreased over time (P ≤ 0.05) in the 17-year-old restoration (?1.6 kg?ha?1?yr?1), while did not change over time in the other three restorations and NP. Soil K, Mg, and Zn content changes over time did not differ (P > 0.05) among ecosystem or between SMRs. Soil nutrient changes are manifestations of soil organic matter dynamics over time and contribute to the inherent soil fertility status of an ecosystem, which needs to be balanced for proper ecosystem functioning and restoration success.

Endangered Butterflies and their Non-Native Host Plants: Examining Shifting Values of Belonging in Restoration

The island marble butterfly (Euchloe ausonides insulanus), thought to be extinct throughout the 20th century until re-discovered on a single remote island in Puget Sound in 1998, has become the focus of a concerted protection effort to prevent its extinction. However, efforts to “restore” island marble habitat conflict with efforts to “restore” the prairie ecosystem where it lives, because of the butterfly’s use of a non-native “weedy” host plant. Through a case study of the island marble project, we examine the practice of ecological restoration as the enactment of particular norms that define which species are understood to belong in the place being restored. We contextualize this case study within ongoing debates over the value of “native” species, indicative of deep-seated uncertainties and anxieties about the role of human intervention to alter or manage landscapes and ecosystems, in the time commonly described as the “Anthropocene.” We interpret the question of “what plants and animals belong in a particular place?” as not a question of scientific truth, but a value-laden construct of environmental management in practice, and we argue for deeper reflexivity on the part of environmental scientists and managers about the social values that inform ecological restoration.

Projected climate change effects on Alberta's boreal forests imply future challenges for oil sands reclamation

Climate change will drive significant changes in vegetation cover and also impact efforts to restore ecosystems that have been disturbed by human activities. Bitumen mining in the Alberta oil sands region of western Canada requires reclamation to “equivalent land capability,” implying establishment of vegetation similar to undisturbed boreal ecosystems. However, there is consensus that this region will be exposed to relatively severe climate warming, causing increased occurrence of drought and wildfire, which threaten the persistence of both natural and reclaimed ecosystems. We used a landscape model, LANDIS‐II, to simulate plant responses to climate change and disturbances, forecasting changes to boreal forests within the oil sands region. Under the most severe climate forcing scenarios (representative concentration pathway [RCP] 8.5) the model projected substantial decreases in forest biomass, with the future forest being dominated by drought‐ and fire‐tolerant species characteristic of parkland or prairie ecosystems. In contrast, less extreme climate forcing scenarios (RCPs 2.6 and 4.5) had relatively minor effects on forest composition and biomass with boreal conifers continuing to dominate the landscape. If the climate continues to change along a trajectory similar to those simulated by climate models for the RCP 8.5 forcing scenario, current reclamation goals to reestablish spruce‐dominated boreal forest will likely be difficult to achieve. Results from scenario modeling studies such as ours, and continued monitoring of change in the boreal forest, will help inform reclamation practices, which could include establishment of species better adapted to warmer and drier conditions.

Detecting intra- and inter-annual variability in gross primary productivity of a North American grassland using MODIS MAIAC data

Prairie productivity is largely affected by temperature and precipitation and is vulnerable to a changing climate. In this study, we used 5-years of growing season eddy covariance and satellite data (MODIS MAIAC) from two adjacent field sites in southern Alberta (Canada) prairie to monitor intra- and inter-annual variation in prairie productivity using remote sensing. Three MODIS vegetation indices were examined to track seasonal variation of Gross Primary Productivity (GPP): the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), the NIRv, and the chlorophyll/carotenoid index (CCI). The productivity of these prairie ecosystems was mainly driven by precipitation, with temperature affecting the starting time of the growing season. The three vegetation indices captured distinct aspects of GPP phenology. CCI, which is sensitive to chlorophyll and carotenoid pigment ratios, followed seasonal GPP dynamics more closely than NDVI and NIRv. Consequently, less hysteresis occurred with the seasonal CCI-GPP relationship than with the NDVI-GPP or NIRv-GPP relationships. Relative to 16-day composite data, daily MODIS data provided a more detailed GPP phenology. However, relationships between all vegetation indices and GPP improved with temporal aggregation up to one month, demonstrating that the degree of data aggregation affects the ability of reflectance-based indices to track GPP. Results from a multivariable regression revealed a strong relationship between GPP and a linear combination of 3 MODIS bands (B1, B2 and B11), which indicates that additional spectral information provided by the MODIS ocean band (band 11) can help track grassland GPP better than typical 2-band broad-band indices (e.g. NDVI or NIRv) only. Improved monitoring of prairie ecosystems using these enhanced approaches, can lead to a better understanding of the effects of changing weather and climate on the productivity of prairie ecosystems.

Den Site Selection by the Florida Spotted Skunk

ABSTRACTThe eastern spotted skunk (Spilogale putorius) is a species of conservation concern in much of its range and has experienced a decline since the early to mid‐1990s. But the subspecies that inhabits peninsular Florida, the Florida spotted skunk (S. p. ambarvalis), might still be abundant and is an important nest predator of the endangered Florida grasshopper sparrow (Ammodramus savannarum floridanus). To gain insight on this little‐studied subspecies and inform potential management strategies, we conducted a resource selection study on the Florida spotted skunk. We examined 5 hypotheses for den site selection related to den type, vegetation, and landscape characteristics in a dry prairie ecosystem in central Florida. We tracked 36 individual skunks to 757 den sites. Using discrete choice analysis, we found that male and nonbreeding female skunks at our study site were 5 times more likely to select a mammal burrow over a gopher tortoise (Gopherus polyphemus) burrow, that selection of a den site increased 34% for each 1‐burrow increase in the number of nearby burrows, and that selection of a den site increased 3% for every 10‐cm increase in a visual obstruction index. Similarly, breeding female skunks were more likely to select mammal burrows and shallow depressions over gopher tortoise burrows by 16‐fold and 13‐fold, respectively, and selection of a den site increased by 75% for every 1‐burrow increase in the number of nearby burrows. In contrast to previous studies that occurred in forested, mountainous environments elsewhere in the species' range, our findings suggest that den characteristics might be more important than landscape or vegetation characteristics to Florida spotted skunk den site selection in dry prairie. Additionally, the frequency of prescribed fires on the landscape did not appear to affect Florida spotted skunk den site selection. Thus, Florida spotted skunks in this ecosystem might be landscape generalists, thereby potentially limiting the ability of managers to control nest predation by this subspecies through habitat management. © 2019 The Wildlife Society.

Managing Tallgrass Prairies for Productivity and Ecological Function: A Long-Term Grazing Experiment in the Southern Great Plains, USA

The Great Plains of the USA is one of largest expanses of prairie ecosystems in the world. Prairies have been extensively converted to other land uses. The remaining prairie ecosystems are important for livestock grazing and provide benefits including habitat for avian, terrestrial, and aquatic species, carbon regulation, and hydrologic function. While producers, land management agencies, and some researchers have promoted livestock management using rotational stocking for increased production efficiency and enhanced ecosystem function, scientific literature has not provided a consensus on whether rotational stocking results in increased plant biomass or animal productivity. To address this research need, we established long-term grazing research using an adaptive management framework to encompass a wide range of production and ecological interactions on native grassland pastures. This paper describes objectives, design, and implementation of the long-term study to evaluate productivity and ecological effects of beef cow–calf management and production under continuous system (CS) or rotational system (RS) on native tallgrass prairie. Findings from 2009 to 2015 indicate that plant biomass and animal productivity were similar in the two grazing management systems. There were some indicators that forage nutritive value of standing biomass and soil nutrient content were enhanced in the RS system compared with the CS, yet individual calf body weight (BW) at weaning was greater in the CS. This prepares us to engage with producers to help determine the focus for the next phase of the research.

Effects of Livestock Grazing Management on Grassland Birds in a Northern Mixed-Grass Prairie Ecosystem

Grassland birds have undergone substantial population declines throughout much of their historic ranges in North America. Most of the remaining grassland bird habitat is restricted to rangelands managed for livestock production, so grazing management has strong implications for grassland bird conservation efforts. We conducted 1 830 point-count surveys at 305 sites during 2016–2017 to evaluate the relative effects of three livestock grazing systems on the abundance and community composition of grassland birds in a northern mixed-grass prairie ecosystem of eastern Montana, United States. Our objectives were to 1) evaluate effects of grazing management on abundance and community composition of grassland obligate birds, focusing specifically on grazing systems, stocking rates, and interactions with rangeland productivity; 2) evaluate the importance of local vegetation characteristics for grassland birds within grazing systems; and 3) assess the effectiveness of rest-rotation grazing to create patch-heterogeneity in rangeland vegetation through the alteration of structural components and the response of grassland birds to these treatments. Overall, we found inconsistent responses in abundances of grassland birds relative to livestock grazing systems and no discernable differences among grazing systems relative to community composition. However, local abundances were often driven by interactions between grazing system and rangeland production potential, suggesting the effects of livestock grazing management were generally mediated by rangeland productivity. In addition, associations between avian abundance and grazing management parameters (e.g., stocking rate) were species specific. Ubiquitous guidelines for livestock grazing systems may be inappropriate for grassland bird conservation efforts in the northern mixed-grass prairie, and high stocking rates may negatively impact populations of dense-grass obligate grassland birds in this region.

Greenness Index from Phenocams Performs Well in Linking Climatic Factors and Monitoring Grass Phenology in a Temperate Prairie Ecosystem

Near-surface remote sensing (e.g., digital cameras) has played an important role in capturing plant phenological metrics at either a focal or landscape scale. Exploring the relationship of the digital image-based greenness index (e.g., Gcc, green chromatic coordinate) with that derived from satellites is critical for land surface process research. Moreover, our understanding of how well Gcc time series associate with environmental variables at field stations in North American prairies remains limited. This paper investigated the response of grass Gcc to daily environmental factors in 2018, such as soil moisture (temperature), air temperature, and solar radiation. Thereafter, using a derivative-based phenology extraction method, we evaluated the correspondence between key phenological events (mainly including start, end and length of growing season, and date with maximum greenness value) derived from Gcc, MODIS and VIIRS NDVI (EVI) for the period 2015–2018. The results showed that daily Gcc was in good agreement with ground-level environmental variables. Additionally, multivariate regression analysis identified that the grass growth in the study area was mainly affected by soil temperature and solar radiation, but not by air temperature. High frequency Gcc time series can respond immediately to precipitation events. In the same year, the phenological metrics retrieved from digital cameras and multiple satellites are similar, with spring phenology having a larger relative difference. There are distinct divergences between changing rates in the greenup and senescence stages. Gcc also shows a close relationship with growing degree days (GDD) derived from air temperature. This study evaluated the performance of a digital camera for monitoring vegetation phenological metrics and related climatic factors. This research will enable multiscale modeling of plant phenology and grassland resource management of temperate prairie ecosystems.

The Limits to Adaptation in Restored Ecosystems and How Management Can Help Overcome Them

Adaptation drives the diversity of form and function observed in nature and is key to population persistence. Yet, adaptation can be limited by a lack of genetic variation, trade-offs, small population size, and constraints imposed by coevolving interacting species. These limits may be particularly important to the colonizing populations in restored ecosystems, such as native prairies restored through seed sowing. Here, we discuss how constraints to adaptation are likely to play out in restored prairie ecosystems and how management decisions, such as seed mix composition, prescribed fire, and strategic site selection, might be used to overcome some of these constraints. Although data are still limited, recent work suggests that restored prairie populations likely face strong selection and that promoting the potential for adaptation in these systems may be necessary for restoring populations both now and in the face of further global change.

Rapid assessment of juniper distribution in prairie landscapes of the northern Great Plains

Woody plant species including eastern redcedar (Juniperus virginiana) and Rocky Mountain juniper (Juniperus scopulorum) are expanding throughout the prairie ecosystems of the Great Plains because of fire suppression, land management practices, and climate change. Juniper encroachment threatens native grasslands by altering soil characteristics, limiting herbaceous biomass, hindering native plant regeneration, and reducing rangeland productivity. Existing land cover products do not effectively characterize the distribution of juniper over a range of densities, making it difficult to assess the scale of the problem. We evaluated a method for rapid classification and mapping of juniper using matched filtering with Landsat 8 snow-covered and snow-free winter imagery (January-March), and snow-free spring imagery (April–June) for 2015–2016. We used data from two path/rows (29/30 and 30/30) in southeastern South Dakota and northeastern Nebraska (approximately 23,000 km2). In both path/rows, we found that snow-covered winter images increased contrast between juniper and the image background and resulted in the highest overall classification accuracies of 94.5% and 88.9% for juniper densities above 15%, compared to 91.4% and 85.7% for snow-free winter imagery and 57.8% and 74.1% for growing season imagery. Using winter imagery, we successfully captured pixels containing juniper density above 50% with ≥90% detection probability. However, the true positive rate dropped to less than 50% once juniper density fell below 20%. We identified 84 791 ha within the study area occupied by juniper (3.6% of the total area), including 27 504 ha in deciduous forests (33% of deciduous forest area) and 38 738 ha in grasslands (6% of grassland area).

Management regime and habitat response influence abundance of regal fritillary (Speyeria idalia) in tallgrass prairie

AbstractThe >2,570,000‐ha Flint Hills ecoregion of Kansas, USA, harbors the largest remaining contiguous tract of tallgrass prairie in North America, a unique system, as the remainder of North America's tallgrass prairie has succumbed to development and conversion. Consequently, the loss and degradation of tallgrass prairie has reduced populations of many North American prairie‐obligate species including the regal fritillary (Speyeria idalia) butterfly. Population abundance and occupied range of regal fritillary have declined >99%, restricting many populations to isolated, remnant patches of tallgrass prairie. Such extensive decline has resulted in consideration of the regal fritillary for protection under the Endangered Species Act. Although it is widely accepted that management practices such as fire, grazing, and haying are necessary to maintain prairie ecosystems, reported responses by regal fritillary to these management regimes have been ambiguous. We tested effects of prescribed fire across short, moderate, and long fire‐return intervals as well as grazing and haying management treatments on regal fritillary density. We also tested the relative influence of habitat characteristics created by these management regimes by measuring density of an obligate host plant (Viola spp.) and canopy cover of woody vegetation, grasses, forbs/ferns, bare ground, and litter. We found density was at least 1.6 times greater in sites burned with a moderate fire‐return interval vs. sites burned with short and long fire‐return intervals. Overall management regardless of fire‐return interval did not have an effect on density. Percent cover of grass had the strongest positive association, while percent cover of woody vegetation had the greatest negative effect on density. Our results indicate that patch‐burning is a viable and perhaps even ideal management strategy for regal fritillary in tallgrass prairie landscapes. Additionally, these results elucidate the importance of fire, particularly when applied at moderate‐return intervals to regal fritillary, and corroborate a growing suite of studies that suggest fire is perhaps not as detrimental to populations of regal fritillary as previously believed.

Monitoring disturbance intervals in forests: a case study of increasing forest disturbance in Minnesota

We develop analytical methods and explore trends in disturbance interval via systematic forest inventory observations at a bioregional scale. Our study spans the dynamic ecotone at the intersection of southern boreal forest, mixed hardwood forest, and tall-grass prairie ecosystems in Minnesota, USA. Disturbance-related tree mortality is a major driver of demographic and successional change in this bioregion. We aim to provide reliable disturbance estimates for forest ecology and economic research. We develop methods applicable to any region with systematic forest inventory observations. We assess disturbances observed by the United States Department of Agriculture-Forest Service Forest Inventory and Analysis program on permanent sample plots in Minnesota, USA. A roughly 50% reduction in disturbance interval is apparent across all forest cover types and for most disturbance categories. The largest changes are for insect damage, disease, wind events, drought, and fire. Publicly available forest inventory data captures the frequency of disturbance events across bioregional landscapes and over time. Our methods serve to highlight rapid changes in rates of damage to standing trees within the study area.

Exotic Species Occurrence in Remnant and Restored Eastern Prairie Ecosystems and their Relation to Native Species Richness, Evenness, and Functional Group Abundance

Eight eastern U.S. prairie sites were sampled for exotic species abundance in relation to levels of native diversity; including species and functional richness, species evenness, and functional group similarity for the alpha (quadrat; 1m2; n = 508) and gamma (site; n = 8) scales. Spearman's rank co- efficient analyses found only a weak negative correlation (P < 0.001; rs =–0.14) with species richness and exotic abundance; and was nonsignificant for the other measures of diversity. Principal Components Analysis (PCA) indicated instead that exotic abundance was more correlated with higher soil parameter values among the sites. Both Lonicera japonica and Lespedeza cuneata represented 90% of the exotic cover from among the study sites.

Listen, Learn, Liaise: Taking the Species Out of Species-At-Risk Through Engagement

On the Ground • Over the past 150 years, cultivation, urbanization, and industrial activity have replaced much of North America's native prairie. As such, native prairie ecosystems are of vital importance to many species at risk. If society wants to conserve the North American prairie ecosystem, including the many species at risk, then partnerships between public agencies, nongovernmental organizations, and private landholders need to be established and strengthened. • To benefit the most species at risk, this partnership should metamorphose from the typical single-species management into one that addresses the needs of multiple species. To that end, we present a framework that is achieved through voluntary partnerships with the ranching community that alleviates their fear of species at risk and enhances their ability to manage multiple species at risk on their properties. • We use the MULTISAR program, delivered since 2002 in the grasslands of southern Alberta, Canada, as the example of an effective and functioning multiple-species conservation program that has applied the framework. Conservation is achieved through the development of a Habitat Conservation Strategy that is based on the 4 pillars of 1) engagement, 2) respect, 3) empowerment, and 4) monitoring and evaluation. • We discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the framework and program based on 15 years’ experience. As the program built trust and acceptance in the ranching community, the number of participants has continuously grown from 1 cooperator to 39 by 2018, conserving 1,600 km2 of prairie habitat in southern Alberta. • The process outlined here can be applied across the grasslands of North America and the world as an effective approach for engaging landholders in the conservation of a suite of species at risk.