Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana Research Articles

Barriers to and facilitators of uptake and sustained use of LPG through the PMUY in tribal communities of Pune district

The Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY), launched in India in 2016, is the world's largest program to provide cleaner cooking fuel to poor households. The PMUY may yield large health benefits because of increased LPG use, and more importantly, reduced chulha use, and thus may significantly reduce household air pollution exposures. This research, conducted in a tribal, difficult-to-reach area of Pune District, leveraged PMUY to study the uptake, adoption, usage, and health benefits of LPG. This work highlighted barriers to and facilitators of adoption and sustained LPG usage. Our findings have program implications and need to be addressed to ensure that poor households continue to use LPG as their primary cooking fuel.Our study indicates that most households expressed a desire to own an LPG gas stove but are not aware about the methods to avail the scheme and rely on the local governments to obtain the LPG. The perceived benefits of using LPG differ among people, depending on their own experiences. The most common perceived benefits include ease of use and less time spent on cooking. However, most people are unaware of the severe health effects of HAP, which, if known, might influence their decision to own and use LPG for cooking. The challenges in availing the scheme include varying registration amount, lesser awareness of the document requirements and multiple trips to the distributors' office to fulfil the documentary requirements. Further, the sustained use is hampered by the non-subsidized refills and unavailability of transport facilities for the refill replacement. Further, the beneficiaries are unaware that the subsidy goes towards the repayment of the loan and more clarity is expected from the distributor when availing the scheme.In conclusion, the population in tribal regions is willing to use the LPG regularly if the refill costs are subsidized. Further increasing logistical and financial support to rural distributors will help in better uptake.

Firewood, forests, and fringe populations: Exploring the inequitable socioeconomic dimensions of Liquified Petroleum Gas (LPG) adoption in India

Liquified petroleum gas (LPG) is an important clean fuel alternative for households that rely on burning biomass for daily cooking needs. In India, Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY) has provided poor households with LPG connections since 2016. We investigate cooking fuel use in households to determine the impact of the policy in the Central Indian Highlands Landscape (CIHL). The CIHL has a large population of marginalized social groups, including Indigenous, Scheduled Tribe, Scheduled Caste, and Other Backward Caste people. We utilize survey data from 4994 households within 500 villages living in forested regions collected in 2018 and a satellite-derived measure of forest availability to investigate the household and ecological determinants of LPG adoption and the timing of this adoption (pre- or post-2016). In addition, we document patterns of firewood collection and evaluate the extent to which households acquiring LPG change these activities. The probability of cooking with LPG was lowest for marginalized social groups. We observe that households recently adopting LPG, likely through PMUY, are poorer, more socially marginalized, less educated, and have more forest available nearby than their early-adopter counterparts. While 90% of LPG-using households continue to use firewood, households that have owned LPG for more years report spending less time collecting firewood, indicating a waning reliance on firewood over time. Policies targeting communities with marginalized social groups living near forests can further accelerate LPG adoption and displace firewood use. Despite overall growth in LPG use, disparities in access to clean cooking fuels remain between socioeconomic groups in India.

Impact of change in household environment condition on morbidity in India: Evidence from longitudinal data.

Household environment condition is an important predictor of morbidity of the household members. Without forming a healthy household environment, creating a healthy population is not possible. In this background, this study assesses the impact of change in household environment conditions on morbidity. For the empirical analysis purpose of this study, we used two waves of longitudinal data from India Human Development Survey (2004-05, 2011-12). This study is based on 34131 re-contacted households in 2011-12 from the base year 2005. The bivariate and ANOVA tests were performed to assess any short-term morbidity (diarrhoea, fever and cough) with respect to change in household environment condition from 2005 to 2011. The multivariate linear regression was performed to assess the impact of change in household environment conditions on morbidity. The multinomial logistic regression was used to assess the impact of change in household environment condition on change in morbidity. The results from multivariate linear regression have shown that the share of household members fell sick due to any short-term morbidity (ASM) was significantly lower (β = -0.060, P<0.001) among the households who lived in clean environment condition in both the periods, 2004-05 and in 2011-12 as compared to those who were living in poor environment condition in both periods net of other socio-economic characteristics of the households. The share of household members fell sick due to any short-term morbidity has significantly declined (β = -0.051, P<0.001) among the household whose household environment condition has changed from poor in 2004-05 to clean environment in 2011-12 as compared to the households who have lived in poor environment condition in both periods in 2004-05 and 2011-12. The results of adjusted percentage from multinomial logistic regression have shown that the household members who fell sick with ASM was remained higher (4.9%; P<0.05) among the households whose environment condition was remained poor in both years in 2005 and 2011 as compared to the other households (2.7%) who remained in the better-off condition in both years in 2005 and 2011. Considering the findings of the study, we suggest that ongoing government flagships programmes such as Swacch Bharat Mission (Clean India Mission), Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (Prime Minister Clean Energy Scheme) and Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (Prime Minister Housing Scheme), and Jal Jeevan Mission (Improved Source of Drinking Water Scheme) should work in tandem to improve household environment conditions.

Firewood, Forests, and Fringe Populations: Exploring the Inequitable Socioeconomic Dimensions of Liquified Petroleum Gas (LPG) Adoption in India

Liquified petroleum gas (LPG) is an important clean fuel alternative for households that rely on burning biomass for daily cooking needs. In India, Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY) has provided poor households with LPG connections since 2016. We investigate cooking fuel use in households to determine the impact of the policy in the Central Indian Highlands Landscape (CIHL). The CIHL has a large population of marginalized social groups, including Indigenous, Scheduled Tribe, Scheduled Caste, and Other Backward Caste people. We utilize survey data from 4,994 households within 500 villages living in forested regions collected in 2018 and a satellite-derived measure of forest availability to investigate the household and ecological determinants of LPG adoption and the timing of this adoption (pre- or post-2016). In addition, we document patterns of firewood collection and evaluate the extent to which households acquiring LPG change these activities. The probability of cooking with LPG was lowest for marginalized social groups. We observe that households recently adopting LPG, likely through PMUY, are poorer, more socially marginalized, less educated, and have more forest available nearby than their early-adopter counterparts. While 90% of LPG-using households continue to use firewood, households that have owned LPG for more years report spending less time collecting firewood, indicating a waning reliance on firewood over time. Policies targeting communities with marginalized social groups living near forests can further accelerate LPG adoption and displace firewood use. Despite overall growth in LPG use, disparities in access to clean cooking fuels remain between socioeconomic groups in India.

The refill gap: clean cooking fuel adoption in rural India

From 2016 to 2019, the Indian Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY) distributed over 80 million liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) stoves, making it the largest clean cooking program ever. Yet, evidence shows widespread continued use of the traditional chulha, negating the potential health benefits of LPG. Here we use semi-structured interviews with female and male adults to understand the drivers of LPG usage in Mulbagal, Karnataka, the site of a proto-PMUY program. We find that respondents perceive the main value of LPG to be saving time, rather than better health. We also find that norms of low female power in the household, in addition to costs, delay saving for and ordering LPG cylinder refills. Namely, female cooks controlled neither the money nor the mobile phone required to order a timely refill. These factors together contribute to the ‘refill gap’: the period of non-use between refilling cylinders, which may range from days to even months. Our work reveals how gender norms can amplify affordability challenges in low-income households.

Household Cooking Fuel Patterns in Rural India: Pre- and Post-Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana

This article analyses the performance and limitations of the Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY), a central scheme launched in the year 2016 for the provision of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) connections to Below Poverty Line households in the country. It shows that the scheme offered more than 80 million LPG connections and contributed to a sharp replacement of traditional fuel (firewood, kerosene, dung cake, etc.) between the years 2014 and 2018. However, a large share of these new consumers appears to have stopped LPG consumption soon after the distribution under the scheme. This is clearly evident in the huge number of inactive LPG connections which continue to increase—from 35.8 million inactive connections in the country in 2017 to 43.2 million in 2019. Though PMUY contributed to the increase in LPG connections, it failed to accelerate its consumption demand among the beneficiaries. Nearly ₹128 billion has been spent by the government in form of subsidies and around 70% of the PMUY beneficiaries have availed loans from Oil Manufacturing Companies (OMCs). If the LPG consumption fails to accelerate, these one-time subsidies provided by the government will fail to achieve the objective and the loans disbursed by the OMCs may turn into non-performing assets.

Knowledge and practices regarding household air pollution in communities of slum areas of Sonipat district in Haryana

Background: Each year globally, 3.8 million people die prematurely from illness attributable to the household air pollution. We assessed community knowledge and practices regarding household air pollution in slum areas of Sonepat district in Haryana.Methods: A community-based cross-sectional study was conducted among 104 households in slum areas of Sonepat district. Data were collected using semi-structured questionnaire included socio-demographic profile, questions for knowledge and practice regarding indoor pollution. The data were coded and analysed using the software R, version 3.6.2.Results: Of 104 household heads interviewed, 82.7 % were males and 17.3% were females. Most (69.2%) of the respondents were illiterate. More than half of the participants (53.8%) were labourer and rest were factory workers. Two third (75%) and more (79.8%) of the head households were aware that cooking fuel was harmful for the environment and smoke was harmful to the health respectively. Two third (75%) were not aware about Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana. Types of fuel used for cooking revealed that 71.2% and 21.1% of households used LPG and charcoal/firewood, respectively and (73.1%) of household cooked food inside the house.Conclusions: The slum communities are aware of indoor air pollution and have knowledge regarding possible health effects. They are exposed to air pollution arising from cooking fuels. There is need for promoting awareness on exposure reductions in homes. The results of our study may help policymakers understand the need for strengthening supply of LPG under Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana.

How does cleaner energy transition influence standard of living and natural resources conservation? A study of households’ perceptions in rural Odisha, India

While importance of cleaner cooking fuels for improving quality of life and facilitating social inclusion and ecological sustainability is well-recognized, success of the initiative depends on beneficiaries’ perceptions about the potential benefits. Here, we examine how the beneficiaries perceive about the benefits of the Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY), an initiative of the Government of India, which aims at providing subsidised connections of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) to the poor households of the country. Perceptions are examined in respect of changes in standard of living and natural resource conservation. Based on primary data and information collected from five villages of the Puri district of Odisha, it is found that beneficiaries perceive only marginal or no change in standard of living after LPG connection in India. Further, the estimated limited dependent variable models show that such perceptions depend on household heads’ education, subsidy on LPG and changes in firewood use. However, occupation or household income does not have any significant impact on perceptions. Efforts should, therefore, be made towards raising awareness of beneficiaries, making LPG cheaper and restricting firewood use for changing households’ perceptions about the benefits of LPG toward greater success of the PMUY.

Policy options for India to minimize air pollution exposure and its health burden

Background:Air pollution has been identified as the largest environmental health risk factor in India. Objective:This work explores policy options for India which are feasible and sustainable. Results:India has already implemented Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana welfare scheme where clean fuel is being supplied to millions of poor households to curb household emissions. Estimates suggest that complete mitigation of household emissions (from cooking, lighting and heating) would reduce the ambient PM2.5 exposure by 30% (in addition to complete reduction of household exposure) that translates into almost 13% reduction in mortality burden. In near future, India needs to turn attention to key outdoor sources. If India follows current legislative emission pathway, ambient PM2.5 exposure is expected to rise by 40.6% and 47.5% in 2030 under RCP4.5 and RCP8.5 scenarios, respectively. On the contrary, short-lived climate pollutant (SLCP) mitigation emission pathway would contain ambient PM2.5 exposure in 2030 similar to the 2010 level. The mortality burden attributable to ambient PM2.5 is expected to increase by 88.7% (5-95 UI 62%-118%) in 2030 from 2010 for the current legislative emission pathway. Switching to SLCP mitigation emission would save 380,000 (270,000-510,000) lives in 2030. This benefit would come at the expense of an additional 0.3-0.5 degree C temperature rise, but is also expected to enhance precipitation. Discussion:Though this is not enough to meet United Nations sustainable development goal targets, achieving this by successfully implementing National Clean Air Program would be a big step forward for India. Further aggressive measures are required if it were to reduce the staggering health burden attributable to air pollution.

Cooking, smoking, and stunting: Effects of household air pollution sources on childhood growth in India.

This paper investigates the effects of household air pollution (HAP) on child stunting in India using a sample of 206,898 under-five children from the latest National Family Health Survey (2015-16). Descriptive statistics and multivariate analysis were used to understand the association of stunting by type of cooking fuel, separate kitchen, and indoor smoking in the household. Using clean cooking fuels (CCFs), having a separate kitchen, and being unexposed to smoking can reduce the prevalence of stunting by 4%, 1%, and 1%, respectively, from the current prevalence of stunting (38%). The probability of childhood stunting among children living in households using unclean cooking fuel (UCF) was significantly higher (OR-1.16; 95% CI: 1.13-1.19) than those living in households using CCF. Findings were similar results in the absence of separate kitchen (OR-1.08; 95% CI: 1.05-1.10) and exposure to environmental tobacco smoke (OR-1.06; 95% CI: 1.04-1.08). Households using UCF had a 16% higher likelihood of stunting, while there was a strong gradient of HAP with stunting after controlling socioeconomic and demographic factors. Therefore, the LPG programs, such as the Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana, may be crucial to reduce HAP and its adverse impact on stunting, and successively to achieve sustainable development goals.

Jointly modeling the adoption and use of clean cooking fuels in rural India

Solid fuel combustion is a major cause of household air pollution, a leading environmental health risk factor globally. In India, over 750 million people continue to rely on firewood and other solid fuels for daily cooking. We explore the drivers of adoption and use of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), India’s dominant clean cooking fuel. We document strides in LPG ownership using a panel dataset of over 8,500 rural households from six Indian states surveyed in 2015 and 2018 (ACCESS), partially due to India’s flagship clean cooking policy Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY). We further demonstrate that the drivers of initial LPG adoption also apply to use. While fuel stacking—using solid fuels and LPG jointly—is pervasive, improved rural incomes and education result in the increased use of clean cooking fuels. After adoption, general LPG customers are predicted to consume on average 93 kilograms of LPG yearly (95% confidence interval (CI): 91–95 kg/year). However, PMUY beneficiaries are predicted to consume 27 kilograms of LPG (95% CI: 24–30 kg/year) less on average than general customers each year, even after controlling for socio-economic differences and years of using LPG. Our findings suggest that additional strategies to accelerate the transition to exclusive LPG use among the 80 million households acquiring LPG through PMUY should aim to improve affordability and increase awareness to realize the full benefits of the Government of India’s investments in cleaner cooking.

Women Empowerment through Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY) Scheme in Rajasthan: A Study on Rural Households in Selected Region

In India, cooking is one of the chores that capture most of the time in women's day to day life. Women in rural India do not get time to look beyond these chores and hardly get time for some other productive work. According to Census, 2011, nearly 121 million families in India are still cooking food using traditional fuels. In India, around 40 percent of households still deprived of clean energy for cooking food. Recognizing such facts, Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY) launched by Hon'ble Prime Minister Narendra Modi in May 2016. This scheme aims to provide a clean energy fuel of Liquified Petroleum Gas (LPG) to 80 million rural women in India who belong below the poverty line family. The present study attempted to analyze the impact of the PMUY scheme on the socio-economic status of women in the rural sector in India and thereby assess the effectiveness of Yojana on women empowerment in the rural sector. The objectives of PMUY, namely, sustainability, energy affordability, efficiency, safety, and clean environment, selected as dependent variables in the study. The socio-economic factors of women empowerment, namely, accessibility, executive power, awareness, financial independence, and behavioral change in herself, chose as independent variables in the study. The present study is a survey-based approach and survey responses obtained from 187 women living in the rural sector in India. The Correlation, regression, and ANOVA statistical tools applied for analysis. The study's findings showed that all the dimensions of PMUY significantly influence the socio-economic aspects of women empowerment. The study also proposed a new conceptual model that may assist the government in framing new policies and strategies to enhance the effectiveness of PMUY in India.

In Memoriam: Kirk R. Smith.

In Memoriam: Kirk R. Smith.

Caste, class and gender in determining access to energy: A critical review of LPG adoption in India

Complex interrelationships between caste, class and gender in India define opportunities and access to energy for certain social groups differently than others. An understanding of access to energy through these lenses allows us to design energy policies differently, accounting for the socio-economic inequality in pricing, subsidies and implementation of policies. This paper attempts to evaluate access to energy through the lens of caste, class and gender. We use an integrated framework (Gender Equality and Social Inclusion (GESI) ) to analyse Government of India's most recent and possibly the largest initiative for the provision of clean cooking energy - Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY), and assess the extent to which PMUY is able to enhance use of LPG by overcoming the existing caste, class and gender-based exclusion. The analysis of PMUY has been supported through theoretical insights from the literature and empirical evidence from India's largest multidimensional energy access database – ACCESS 2018. Though the scheme recognises the pre-existing inequities, our analysis suggests a focus on caste, class and gender in the implementation procedures would be imperative for the scheme along with others focused on LPG access to achieve its objective.

Sustained LPG use requires progress on broader development outcomes.

While the Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana has been instrumental in increasing India's liquefied petroleum gas adoption, sustained use depends on factors such as regularity of income and ease of access to free-of-cost biomass. To ensure sustained use after adoption, interventions in clean cooking energy must tie in with broader rural development.

The drivers of sustained use of liquified petroleum gas in India.

Ninety-five per cent of Indian households now have access to liquified petroleum gas (LPG), with 80 million acquiring it under the Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY) since 2016. Still, having a connection is not enough to eliminate household air pollution. Studying panel data from rural households in six major states from 2014-2015 and 2018, we assess the determinants of cooking energy transition from solid fuels to LPG. We find that PMUY beneficiaries have much lower odds of using LPG as the primary or exclusive fuel compared with general customers, irrespective of their economic status. Village-level penetration of LPG as a primary fuel and the years of LPG use positively influence its sustained use, while ease of access to freely available biomass and reliance on uncertain and irregular income sources hinder LPG use. The findings highlight the need to interlace cooking fuel policies with rural development, to enable a complete transition towards cleaner cooking fuels.

Determinants of adoption of cleaner cooking energy: Experience of the Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana in rural Odisha, India

Since its inception, the Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY) of the Government of India has provided subsidized liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) connections to many poor households for enhancing use of LPG as a cooking fuel. However, along with such large LPG connections, it is also necessary to understand how the beneficiaries have adopted the same. This paper examines beneficiary households’ response to the PMUY in respect of actual use of LPG and identifies the underlying factors in rural areas of the Indian state of Odisha. Using descriptive statistics and estimating limited dependent variable models the paper finds significant positive impact of household heads’ education and amount of subsidy on actual use of LPG, whereas general category households have lower adoption of the same. Further, greater availability of kerosene also limits adoption of LPG. Importantly, household income does not influence adoption of this cleaner fuel. The findings of the paper, therefore, have significant implications for fine tuning of policies and institutions towards cleaner energy transition in rural India, particularly in respect of enhancing relative price and awareness about benefits of LPG and its delivery mechanisms.

Using sales data to assess cooking gas adoption and the impact of India’s Ujjwala programme in rural Karnataka

More than 70 million poor women in India have received liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) stoves within the first 35 months under a government programme, Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY). Here, we analyse multi-year LPG sales data from a district in Karnataka to assess enrolment and consumption trends for both PMUY beneficiaries and general (non-PMUY) rural consumers. We find rapid growth in enrolments of LPG consumers, but this is not matched by an increase in LPG sales, suggesting that LPG access has not induced a full transition away from the use of polluting solid fuels. The number of LPG refills among PMUY beneficiaries is less than half that of rural general consumers. We also find no observable increase in LPG consumption among general rural consumers with years of experience. These results suggest that mid-course policy revisions to encourage regular LPG use are needed for both PMUY and general rural consumers. India’s Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana is a programme that seeks to transition poor households away from unclean cooking fuels. In this Analysis, the authors use liquefied petroleum gas sales data to assess the adoption of cooking gas and the impact of this programme in a district of rural Karnataka.

Impact of Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana on the Forest Dwelling Tribes of Kannur District in Kerala

Impact of Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana on the Forest Dwelling Tribes of Kannur District in Kerala

Respiratory Health Status of Rural Women Exposed to Liquefied Petroleum Gas and Solid Biomass Fuel Emissions

Combustion of solid biomass fuel (SBF) releases a high concentration of airborne pollutants, resulting in household air pollution (HAP). HAP is considered as a leading risk factor for the development of various respiratory diseases. The increased exposure to HAP significantly affects the health of the vulnerable population, including the women, elderly, and children who stay indoors for most of the time. Considering this, self-reported respiratory health symptoms were assessed using a standard American Thoracic Society (ATS) questionnaire, whereas lung function capacity of women using SBF, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) and mix fuels were assessed using a cross-sectional study design. Lung function capacity was examined with help of spirometry. Results suggest that compared with LPG users, SBF and mix fuel users had a relatively high prevalence of phlegm (25.7%), cough (54%), and eye irritation (74.3%). Use of SBF was found to be associated significantly with lower forced expiratory volume in the first second of expiration (FEV1) values ( P &lt; .01). The study concludes that women cooking with SBF and mix fuels have an impact on lung function and increased prevalence of respiratory symptoms. The findings suggest that women who cook using LPG have improved lung function and respiratory health status. Hence, it is suggested to increase the scope of clean fuel programmes such as Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY) by identifying the barriers for the choice of clean fuel uses for household energy.