Diplomatic Research Articles

Tourism sanctions as a means of China’s economic statecraft: an fsQCA analysis

ABSTRACT This study examines cases to identify sufficient conditions that give rise to tourism sanctions as a means of economic statecraft. Tourism sanctions indicate a state’s restrictions on outbound tourism to achieve diplomatic goals. A fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis (fsQCA) was used to compare relevant cases. Results demonstrated that tourism sanctions are likely to tackle hard security issues when any of the following sets of conditions are present: 1) targets are highly dependent on the source market, but not overall dependent on tourism, or 2) targets are tourism-dependent democracies. Tourism sanctions are typically intended to have a limited impact on a target rather than to topple its economy. Findings shed light on the less discovered aspect of international tourism as most of the cases are comparatively recent and still under researched.

How a Nazi occupied India’s first chair in International Relations

Abstract This article contributes to disciplinary histories of International Relations (IR) by revealing a little-known history: how a Nazi diplomat, Curt Max Prüfer, occupied the first chair in IR in India. While the paper documents how Prüfer, a discredited diplomat, landed in Delhi through his connections with peripatetic Indian anti-colonial networks and spent slightly over two years as the first IR chair at Delhi University, it also makes broader claims about how we narrate disciplinary histories. Intellectual genealogies, the predominant way in which disciplinary histories are written, often miss the contingent factors that play a considerable role in the fashioning of the discipline. Contingency-filled narratives also point towards the fact that International Relations/Affairs, at least in its early period of formation, operated as a term of mythical heft – a placeholder to fit anyone with academic or practical expertise in varied fields such as international law, colonial administration, anthropology, diplomacy, history, political economy, and military strategy.

Diplomacy and Conflict Resolution through Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation in Rwanda

Purpose: The general objective of the study was to examine the effect of diplomacy practices on the conflict resolution in Rwanda. This study has the following specific objectives: To assess the effect of the public diplomacy on conflict resolution through MINAFFET. To establish the effect of economic diplomacy on conflict resolution through MINAFFET. To find out the effect of cultural diplomacy on conflict resolution through MINAFFET. This study assisted decision-makers, policy-makers, and government officials in enhancing their strategies for conflict resolution by providing insights into the effectiveness of public, economic, and cultural diplomacy through the MINAFFET. Methodology: The study used a descriptive research design, A total of 121 MINAFFET employees were the target population. All members of the target population were included in the sample size for this survey, which follows the census approach. The researcher collected data using questionnaire. Statistical methods such as correlation and regression analysis, in addition to descriptive statistics such as means and standard deviations, were used by the researcher when dealing with quantitative data. For qualitative data, content analysis was used. Findings: The model demonstrates a multiple correlation coefficient (R) of 0.873, signifying a robust positive correlation among public diplomacy, economic diplomacy, and cultural diplomacy with the dependent variable, conflict resolution via the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation in Rwanda. Unique Contribution to Theory, Practice and Policy: It is advised that the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation in Rwanda focus the enhancement of its diplomatic strategy via public, economic, and cultural avenues. This entails cultivating more vigorous public diplomacy efforts, advocating for economic interdependence as a mechanism for peace, and augmenting cultural contacts to enhance mutual understanding and collaboration among opposing factions.

A Review of on China by Henry Kissinger: Insights into Diplomacy and History and its Implications for Afghans

This book review critically examines On China by Henry Kissinger, exploring its significance in the fields of international relations, diplomacy, and history. The review summarizes the book's key themes and sections, with a focus on Chinese foreign policy and the evolution of Chinese leadership. Additionally, it contextualizes the book's relevance for Afghan scholars, policymakers, and students by highlighting China's expanding influence in Afghanistan. The review emphasizes the importance of understanding China’s geopolitical strategies and concludes with insights into how the book can inform future policy decisions.

Value, knowledge and reputation: zoological exchange by Australian museums, 1870-1900.

The burgeoning nineteenth-century public-museum sector built a significant part of its natural-history specimen collections through extensive international trading. The early 2020s has seen an upsurge of scholarly interest in this largely overlooked trade. Exchange was a distinctive aspect of the natural-history trade that reveals much about the diverse practices and motives of the institutional collectors. Economic-geographic benefits included conserving the limited financial resources of museums and exploiting complementarities in the geographic distribution of specimens. Collection management, institutional reputation, social connection and international diplomacy were also part of a complex mix of value making that shaped this important international trade. We analyse the exchange practices of the three largest museums in the Australian colonies in the final three decades of the nineteenth century who exchanged Australia's 'rare and curious' fauna with collectors across the globe. By deploying and analysing extensive, comparative data on a particular form of natural history, zoology, and a particular kind of trade, exchange trading, among three Australian museums, this paper extends and enriches recent scholarship on the mobility of natural-history specimens and how they were traded.

Romania and the International Sanitary Conferences of the Late Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries

This paper traces Romania’s participation in the International Sanitary Conferences of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Romania’s interest in international sanitary diplomacy was directly linked to the country’s geographical location and the role of the Danube in the spread of epidemics. The cholera outbreak that reached the Lower Danube in 1865 demonstrated that the river, which connected the Levant to Central Europe via steamship companies, was one of the main gateways through which epidemics spread to the continent. With their busy commercial links to other Black Sea ports, Sulina, Galați and Brăila were equally vulnerable to the importation of diseases that reached Ottoman or imperial Russian ports by land, i.e., via Persia or Central Asia. Such serious health concerns became even more important to the Romanian government after the Danube Delta and Dobrudja became part of independent Romania in 1878. The text follows the various interests that Romania had during these decades, defended by diplomats and doctors who worked together to protect public health from various epidemic, political or economic threats.

Early Modern Diplomacy and French Festival Culture in a European Context, 1572-1615

Early Modern Diplomacy and French Festival Culture in a European Context, 1572-1615

National identity politics and postcolonial sovereignty games: Greenland, Denmark, and the European Union

The relationship between Greenland and the EU is to a great degree influenced by the image of Greenland being on the path towards independence from Denmark. In both countries, identity discourse idealizes the homogenous nation state, leaving the ‘community of the realm’ in need of a good explanation. However, attempts to explain Greenland’s continued reliance on outside help in its development towards independence continuously risk infantilizing the country. As climate changes are establishing the Arctic as a site of mineral extraction and commerce, Greenland is finding new ways of diversifying its dependence. Important in this regard is the way Greenland’s relationship to the EU is played out as a series of ‘sovereignty games’ that minimize Denmark’s role as intermediary. This book looks at changes to national identity discourse and foreign policy through four analytical strategies — identifying the core concepts of Danish and Greenlandic identity through discourse analysis; reading political debates as identity-political negotiations; using qualitative interviews with key actors to see how clashing identity discourses are managed in diplomatic practice; and approaching legal texts as the ‘frozen’ outcome of these ‘sovereignty games’. In conclusion, the book draws up scenarios for how the expiry date of the ‘community of the realm’ may be extended – by finding new metaphors that will facilitate equality, and by employing Danish diplomacy to make Greenland less dependent on Denmark.

Post-pandemic positions: new perspectives on international education and public diplomacy in Australia

PurposeIn an era of internationalism, higher education and vocational training have been core to Australia’s nation-building, regional co-operation and public diplomacy. This essay examines what has become of the people-to-people aspect of Australia’s engagements in the Indo-Pacific region, as discussed in the Australian government’s influential White Paper on Australia in the Asian Century (2012). More recently, established patterns of international educational exchange, and their economic, social and cultural benefits, have been disrupted by the global COVID-19 pandemic, shifting international relations and domestic politics, with consequences for international education and public diplomacy.Design/methodology/approachThis essay introduces the scholarly context for a reappraisal of Australian histories of international education within the Indo-Pacific region since the mid-20th century, and the role of NGOs, academia and government in educational schemes and scholarships. It draws on an approach informed by international history, the history of education and diplomatic studies, to provide an overview of key themes and the past and present case studies discussed in the seven articles of this special journal issue.FindingsThe little-known histories of international education in Australia, and associated scholarship schemes, are important aspects of soft power or public diplomacy and the nation’s relations with the Indo-Pacific region. We argue that there needs to be greater acknowledgement of the vital role of these interpersonal interactions and the international organisations that facilitated such exchanges in histories of Australia’s internationalism and diplomacy. While Australian governments have initiated scholarship programmes, what is becoming clear is that understanding their significance for Australian–regional relationships demands a research focus on student expectations and experiences that often lay beyond government control.Originality/valueThis essay and the articles in this special issue offer new historic and current insights on international education policy and programmes and Australia’s diplomatic relations. Many of the highlighted case studies have not previously been analysed within this context, and fresh analysis makes an intervention into the field, revealing the complexities and limitations of international education and people-to-people relationships for Australia’s past and present connections with the Indo-Pacific region.

An Examination of The Alliance System and Its Effective Attraction in Conducting Modern Diplomacy

The quest to maintain a balance in interstate relations, achieve collective security, and mutual support in case of war led to the formation or the emergence of the alliance system. As such, the alliance system was an unsteady and delicate system of interstate relation which started in Europe during the period of the evolution of state formation roughly between 1500 and early 1900. Although the alliance system sometimes prevent war, it was used most times to tilt the balance of power in favour of the allies. Consequently, the alliance system began to define several activities in the world ranging from economic, social, political, to cultural life. Attempts have been made to examine the alliance system and its effective attraction in conducting modern diplomacy. The study was carried out with the aid of secondary sources and internet materials. The result of the findings in this study shows that the main idea underpinning the alliance system was collective security for it was believed that since all the major European powers had strong allies, a major war could not break out since an attack on one power would lead to a counterattack not only by that country, but their allies. The paper concludes that the alliance system has had an effective attraction in conducting modern diplomacy.

Dharma and Modern diplomacy: Lessons on peace-building from Buddhist philosophy

Peace is the most sought after asset in today’s world. Everyone wants to be in a Harmonious relationship and environment But we are losing it to treachery, power conflicts and ego issues. In Today‘s age international conflicts and geopolitical tensions are very prevalent in the world, Buddha’s teachings can offer a profound and timeless wisdom for modern diplomacy and peace-building efforts that can provide sustainable insights and solutions to the problems. His Teachings primarily focused on individual peace and enlightenment that has now been interpreted and adapted to address the broader context of peace-building among nations and to seek valuable insights for modern diplomacy and peace-building efforts.He stated that Hatred does not cease by hatred, but only by love; this is the eternal rule . This research paper will explores the convergence of ancient wisdom of Buddha and present day cutting-edge international relations. This paper explores the principles of Dharma, particularly from Buddhist teachings, and their applicability to modern diplomatic practices. It will analyse how compassion, non-violence, and interconnectedness present in Buddhist philosophy can provide valuable insights for developing peace and resolving conflicts in today’s complex scenarios.In the linked world of today, these harmonious ties will be beneficial. It lowers the probability of war by facilitating amicable dispute settlement through discussion and negotiation. Additionally, it facilitates the formation and upkeep of multinational alliances, which promotes collaboration on world problems including trade, security, and climate change. Furthermore, modern diplomacy is more inclusive and efficient in tackling both established and new global concerns because of its flexibility in utilizing new platforms and technology to improve communication.. By analyzing the core principles of Dharma and applying as approaches by countries or organizations to manage international relations and achieve foreign policy goals. The purpose of this study is to offer a novel viewpoint on fostering peace and understanding in international relations.

Turkish Public Diplomacy in the Minutes of the Turkish Grand National Assembly (1931-1938)

For the young Republic of Turkey, the 1930s were a test of international public diplomacy. Turkey, which based its domestic and foreign policy on the principle of “Peace at home, peace in the world!”, was also concerned about its own future with the dictatorial regimes of Germany, Russia and Italy, which had distanced themselves from democratic governance and entered into an arms race with a sense of revenge, as well as the public diplomacy it would conduct and the measures it would take with the countries in its region. During the First World War, the country had suffered great devastation. The Turkish nation had spent everything it had in the struggle for liberation and was almost exhausted. However, it had managed to build a democratic state based on “National Sovereignty” despite the great economic depression that engulfed the world. However, the political developments in Europe and the possibility of the Republic of Turkey entering into a new chaos with the approaching World War could have destroyed all the gains and the future of the country. The task of protecting Turkey from this impending danger and keeping it safe could only be possible with the rational policies pursued by President Gazi Mustafa Kemal Atatürk and the correct decisions taken by the Turkish Grand National Assembly in line with these policies. The aim of this study is to examine the Turkish public diplomacy as reflected in the minutes of the Turkish Grand National Assembly of Turkey between 1932 and 1938 in order to prevent Turkey's involvement in the upcoming great war and to secure its gains with measures to ensure its security in the region.

Status Orders: Toward a Local Understanding of Status Dynamics in World Politics

Abstract This analytical essay highlights the importance of status orders in the study of status and prestige in world politics. Drawing on recent research in the field, I argue that understanding the particular social structures that regulate the status dynamics within social collectives is crucial to understanding how actors seek and receive status in world politics. I review the literature on status in IR and introduce the concept of status orders as context-specific and local social structures that determine what is considered prestigious within a particular group, community, or club. Using examples from war-making, nuclear weapons, and diplomatic practice, I argue that the fact that status dynamics is often produced locally and not globally forces us to focus less on “universal” aspirations for status, and more on where that actor sought status from and eventually according to which yardstick that actor experienced a change in status.

From Cuba to the World: The Ripple Effect of US Sanctions

This paper explores the complex and enduring application of U.S. economic sanctions on Cuba, the longest-standing sanctions regime in modern history. Economic sanctions, a prominent tool of international diplomacy, are designed to influence or penalize states to achieve specific political objectives. The study offers a comprehensive historical overview of the sanctions imposed on Cuba since the Cuban Revolution of 1959. It examines the key phases of the embargo, including its escalation under various U.S. administrations and its multifaceted impacts on Cuban domestic affairs and international trade. Through a detailed analysis, this paper reveals that, while the sanctions aimed to induce regime change, their effectiveness has been ambiguous. Domestically, U.S. political dynamics, particularly the influence of Cuban-American voters and shifting political agendas, have significantly shaped the persistence and intensity of the sanctions. Furthermore, the study highlights how the sanctions have impacted global trade dynamics, illustrating that the U.S. has maintained a quasi-monopolistic advantage in the Cuban market while ostensibly addressing humanitarian concerns. The findings indicate that the sanctions on Cuba, rather than being a straightforward case of failure, have provided strategic benefits to the U.S. despite their limited success in achieving their primary political goals. This nuanced perspective sheds light on the broader implications of economic sanctions and their role in international relations.

AI and Machine Learning in International Diplomacy and Conflict Resolution

The role of incorporating Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) in International Diplomacy and conflict resolution has the ability to revolutionize the current processes. The current paper aims at reviewing the future responsibilities of these technologies in improving diplomacy and forecasting wars. Thus, scrutinizing selected successful cases of AI use in diplomacy, and the possibilities of ML in conflict areas. The paper also covers the ethical issues and the possible developments of Artificial Intelligence in the sphere of diplomacy of various states. The conclusions stress the essential role of AI and ML in creating a more favorable external environment in order to reduce conflicts.

A New Demon after Collapse: Jewish Social Media Images in the Israeli Palestinian ConflictShort Videos' Analysis Based on TikTok

From over two thousand years of exile history to post World War II Holocaust literature and film and television dramas, Jews have always appeared in various media as innocent victims with a mix of sadness and resilience, even making the "Jewish stance" somewhat politically correct. This article is based on the new round of Palestinian Israeli conflict that broke out on October 7, 2023. The research object is 729 short video data crawled on social media TikTok. Through analyzing the overall attitudes towards Jews presented in the videos, it is found that the ratio of positive and negative attitudes is about 1:12, and "genocide", "war criminals", and "terrorism" are the majority of accusations against Israeli Jews in the videos. The large number of negative evaluations on social media presented in the research conclusion strongly contrasts with the stereotypical impression of Jews in past media expressions. This finding is crucial for China's future diplomatic practice and how to enhance its ability to guide international public opinion.

Diplomatic webs: the influential figures shaping U.S. policy in Israel, Qatar, and Iraq

Abstract Purpose This study examines the Twitter/X networks of U.S. ambassadors in Israel, Iraq, and Qatar from 2017 to 2024, aiming to assess how digital diplomacy is conducted through these platforms. Utilizing Sprinklr, we gathered 586,736 mentions involving the ambassadors’ Twitter handles, with a focus on evaluating the influence and communication strategies within these networks. Design/methodology/approach We analyzed a random sample of 30,000 tweets from the collected data using network analysis techniques. This approach enabled the examination of centrality metrics within the ambassadors’ digital networks, providing insights into the influence patterns and communicative interactions via Gephi. Findings The analysis revealed a significant influence of state actors and established political elites who predominantly engage in unidirectional communication, despite the platforms’ capabilities for interactive and reciprocal dialogues. We identified elected officials and specific non-governmental organizations as key actors shaping the diplomatic narratives, highlighting the diverse yet controlled actor interplay in digital diplomacy. Practical implications This research underscores the need for strategic adjustments in digital diplomacy practices to enhance interaction and inclusivity. Our work provides policymakers with insights into leveraging digital platforms for more effective and dynamic diplomatic exchanges. Social implications The study illuminates the role of digital platforms as critical venues for shaping diplomatic narratives by both state and non-state actors. Notably, our findings highlight the use of hashtags in advancing human rights movements and in discussions surrounding the Israel–Palestine conflict, demonstrating hashtags’ impact on global and regional advocacy efforts. Originality/value This research offers a unique perspective on the integration of traditional diplomatic roles with contemporary digital strategies, particularly highlighting the constraints and potentials within Middle Eastern contexts. We suggest ways to enhance the inclusivity and effectiveness of diplomatic engagements through improved social media utilization, thereby contributing to the evolving field of international relations and public diplomacy.

Cyber intelligence and international security. Breaking the legal and diplomatic silence?

ABSTRACT In cyberspace intelligence agencies, rather than militaries, are the most prominent security actors. However, many cyber operations conducted by intelligence agencies are not ‘classic’ espionage activities, but may be best described as digital covert action (sabotage, subversion, information operations). Given the fact that international law and diplomacy traditionally do not address espionage, cyber operations conducted by intelligence agencies have developed in a legal grey zone that gets stretched by the behaviour of the intelligence agencies of the most brazen cyber powers. The digital age has significantly transformed the capabilities and the role of intelligence agencies, which raises the question if the traditional international consensus that ‘intelligence is not discussed’ is still useful in state-to-state relations. The theoretically underdefined role and activities of intelligence agencies are affected by four big changes in the digital age: increase in scale of their activities and effects, heightened ambiguity, massive expansion of the attack surface and trickle-down insecurity, which point to a need to rethink how cyber intelligence agencies should operate. Some states will continue to push the boundaries of what is possible in cyberspace, unless other states break with the legal and diplomatic silence to discuss ‘guardrails’ to cyber intelligence activities.

Space Security and the Law of International Space Cooperation: The Need for Leadership and Coordination

In recent times space exploration and technological advancements hold prominent importance, the merger of space security and international collaboration must be paid attention too. Whereby, during the recent advancements in space technologies which include the proliferation of satellite and emergence of various space programs, the non-commercial and sustainable utilization of space must be taken care of. This paper explores and access the methodologies adopted and put into motion by nation having a well-established space program to address the difficulties faced while maintaining the space security along with ongoing space explorations. This research study will also pay emphasis towards analysing the already existing legal framework which directly governs various outer space activities, international organizations, role of governments and private industry players towards shaping of governance in outer space. In order to build trust and furthering the shared objectives in outer space and resolution of disputes among nation states, emphasis on how significant and valued international cooperation and diplomacy can prove to be. The various risks factors such as deliberate actions which are testing of anti-satellite weapons and dispersion of space debris in high volumes that the assets in space encounter are explored in this research. This study also discusses about case studies that have impacted the outer space and space explorations and other space missions positively as well as negatively in past instances. This study concludes the necessity of proactive leadership and teamwork in addressing the issue of space security and the legislation of international space cooperation. Roles of significant stakeholders, implementation of future course of actions with necessary changes to guide and provide policymakers in understanding the complexity of space reforms for peaceful utilization of outer space for both current and future human race.

International Humanitarian Assistance for Health: Türkiye’s Health Diplomacy Practices during the Covid-19 Pandemic

COVID-19 has significantly impacted the health systems of developed countries, leading to a surge in the demand for medical supplies and equipment. This study is dedicated to shedding light on Türkiye's health diplomacy practices and its pivotal role as a facilitator in addressing the escalating global humanitarian and medical aid demand for medical equipment, supplies, medicines, and vaccines due to COVID-19. The study employs the PRISMA systematic analysis method as a data collection protocol to scrutinize Türkiye's international humanitarian and medical assistance during the COVID-19 pandemic in the context of health diplomacy practices. The study's findings, which are categorized under four headings: international humanitarian aid based on COVID-19, international medical equipment and supplies, international ventilator aid, and Türkiye's international COVID-19 vaccine aid, reveal that Türkiye has extended a broad spectrum of medical aid and support, including ventilators, vaccines, and medical equipment, to 161 countries across five continents, demonstrating its global reach and impact. Furthermore, as a testament to its “entrepreneurial and humanitarian foreign policy,” Türkiye has underscored regional and international cooperation through its medical and humanitarian endeavors. Türkiye's international humanitarian assistance has gone beyond material aid to encourage dialogue and has been a message of international solidarity for communities. In future research, establishing a connection between Türkiye's regional and international medical assistance and tangible political, social, and economic outcomes will validate the impact and benefits of its humanitarian efforts.