Ppm Deoxynivalenol Research Articles

Developing sodium metabisulfite (SMBS)-containing Eudragit L100-55 microparticles for controlled intestinal release of SMBS to detoxify deoxynivalenol

This study aimed to achieve effective in vivo detoxification of deoxynivalenol (DON) contained in piglet feedstuff by developing sodium metabisulfite (SMBS)-containing Eudragit L100-55 (ES) microparticles as a novel feed additive. DON detoxification was assessed in vitro (IPEC-J2 cell) and in vivo (piglet). Within 2 h of exposure to simulated gastric fluid (SGF), 14.31% of encapsulated SMBS was released from ES microparticles, while 82.93% was released in another 80 min in simulated intestinal fluid (SIF). In IPEC-J2 cells, 0.1% ES microparticles remediated the toxicity of DON after 2 h incubation in SGF and 40 min in SIF. Forty weaned piglets with similar body weights (10 pigs/treatment) were fed for 28 days. Four diets were used: negative control (NC, 0.00 ppm DON), positive control (PC, 3.33 ppm DON), pure SMBS (PST, 3.33 ppm DON and 0.2% SMBS), and ES microparticles (EST, 3.33 ppm DON and 0.40% ES microparticles). The PC diet reduced ADG by 21.4% and ADFI by 20.1% compared to the NC diet (P < 0.05). The EST diet increased ADG and ADFI by 21.7% and 17.7% compared to the PC diet (P < 0.05), with no significant difference from the NC diet (P > 0.05). Compared to the PC and PST diets, the EST diet increased villus height, villus height/crypt depth ratio, mRNA levels of claudin 3 and peptide transporter 1, and decreased mRNA level of toll-like receptor 4 (P < 0.05). ES microparticles could protect SMBS, and the released SMBS could mitigate the toxic effects of DON in piglets.

Identification of fusarium head blight resistance markers in a genome-wide association study of CIMMYT spring synthetic hexaploid derived wheat lines

Fusarium head blight (FHB), caused by Fusarium graminearum, is one of the most destructive wheat diseases worldwide. FHB infection can dramatically reduce grain yield and quality due to mycotoxins contamination. Wheat resistance to FHB is quantitatively inherited and many low-effect quantitative trait loci (QTL) have been mapped in the wheat genome. Synthetic hexaploid wheat (SHW) represents a novel source of FHB resistance derived from Aegilops tauschii and Triticum turgidum that can be transferred into common wheat (T. aestivum). In this study, a panel of 194 spring Synthetic Hexaploid Derived Wheat (SHDW) lines from the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) was evaluated for FHB response under field conditions over three years (2017–2019). A significant phenotypic variation was found for disease incidence, severity, index, number of Fusarium Damaged Kernels (FDKs), and deoxynivalenol (DON) content. Further, 11 accessions displayed < 10 ppm DON in 2017 and 2019. Genotyping of the SHDW panel using a 90 K Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP) chip array revealed 31 K polymorphic SNPs with a minor allele frequency (MAF) > 5%, which were used for a Genome-Wide Association Study (GWAS) of FHB resistance. A total of 52 significant marker-trait associations for FHB resistance were identified. These included 5 for DON content, 13 for the percentage of FDKs, 11 for the FHB index, 3 for disease incidence, and 20 for disease severity. A survey of genes associated with the markers identified 395 candidate genes that may be involved in FHB resistance. Collectively, our results strongly support the view that utilization of synthetic hexaploid wheat in wheat breeding would enhance diversity and introduce new sources of resistance against FHB into the common wheat gene pool. Further, validated SNP markers associated with FHB resistance may facilitate the screening of wheat populations for FHB resistance.

Fusarium Graminearum Virus-1 Strain FgV1-SD4 Infection Eliminates Mycotoxin Deoxynivalenol Synthesis by Fusarium graminearum in FHB.

Deoxynivalenol (DON) toxin production during the infection of F. graminearum in small grain crops is one of the most harmful virulence factors associated with economic losses. Metatranscriptome sequencing and RT-qPCR traced back that the only mycovirus infecting an F. graminearum isolate, designated as Fg-4-2, was a novel strain of Fusarium graminearum virus 1 (FgV1), designated as FgV1-SD4. The isolate Fg-4-2 showed significantly reduced virulence against wheat compared to the virus-free culture, designated as isolate Fg-4-1, which was obtained by deep freezing and single conidial germination. Notably, no DON accumulation was detected in the harvested wheat seeds infected by Fg-4-2, whereas ~18 ppm DON was detected in seeds infected by Fg-4-1. Comparison of the genome sequence of FgV1-SD4 with other identified strains of FgV1, i.e., FgV1-DK21 and FgV1-ch, indicates mutations on ORF-2 and the 3′-UTR in the genome that might be associated with hypovirulence. This mycovirus strain alone and specific genetic components of FgV1-SD4 can be further optimized to be developed as a biocontrol agent to reduce Fusarium head blight and to lower the DON accumulation levels in small grain crops due to this fungal disease.

Growth Performance of Broilers in Response to Increasing Concentration of Multiple Mycotoxins in Contaminated Corn

Mycotoxins in grains are a result of mold or fungal growth from environmental stressors and cause detrimental impacts to poultry production. Thus, the objective of this experiment was to determine the effects of increasing concentration of a combina­tion of mycotoxins on growth performance of broiler chicks. A total of 250 one-day-old male broilers (Cobb 500; initial BW 0.092 lb) were used in a 15-d study. Broilers were housed in 3 Petersime batteries with ad libitum access to feed and water. Treatments were randomly assigned to 1 of 50 cages within location block, resulting in 10 cages per treatment with 5 broilers per cage balanced by BW. For this experiment, the sourced contaminated corn contained 8.2 ppm fumonisin (FUM), 8.0 ppm deoxynivalenol (DON), and 551 ppb zearalenone (ZEA). Dietary treatments consisted of 0%, 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100% of the mycotoxin contaminated corn replacing non-contaminated corn. The resulting complete diet mycotoxin concentrations were 1.5 ppm, 1.4 ppm, 2.3 ppm, 2.9 ppm, and 3.9 ppm for FUM; < 0.6 ppm, 1.0 ppm, 1.4 ppm, 2.3 ppm, and 3.0 ppm for DON; and < 51.7 ppb, 94.5 ppb, 180.5 ppm, 294.6 ppb, and 364.1 ppb for ZEA, respectively. Data were analyzed as a completely randomized design with cage as the experimental unit using the GLIMMIX procedure of SAS 9.4 (Cary, NC). Results were considered significant at P ≤ 0.05. Total body weight gain (BWG) decreased (linear, P = 0.007) and feed intake (FI) tended to decrease (linear, P = 0.093) in broilers fed diets with increasing concentration of mycotoxin contaminated corn in the diet. The increase in mycotoxin concentration in diets fed to broilers also resulted in poorer (linear, P = 0.010) feed conversion ratio (FCR). In conclusion, increasing concentra­tions of FUM, DON, and ZEA in broiler feed negatively impacted BWG, FI, and FCR even when the mycotoxin levels were below acceptable limits for individual mycotoxins.

Fluorescence imaging of glutathione with aptasensor and monitoring deoxynivalenol-induced oxidative stress in living cells

Glutathione (GSH) is an important intracellular antioxidant. It is closely related to the homeostasis of the intracellular redox state which can be changed through deoxynivalenol (DON) exposure. More importantly, GSH deficiency can directly lead to apoptosis and cellular metabolic disorders mediated by intracellular redox homeostasis. Therefore, real-time monitoring of dynamic changes of GSH levels in living cells is urgently needed for the evaluation of intracellular oxidative stress. Herein, for the first time, an aptamer-based recognition composite nanoprobe (Apt-AuNCs-MoS2) was successfully constructed. The nanoprobe was employed for real-time and in situ imaging of DON-induced intracellular GSH changes and evaluation of oxidative stress status. The results indicated that the aptasensor revealed excellent specificity and high sensitivity to GSH in the solution system, and the limit of detection was as low as 35 nM. The results about DON-mediated oxidative stress indicated that the oxidative stress in living cells tends to be saturated with more than 20 ppm DON concentration. Thus, the strategy provides a novel aptasensor for the determination of GSH, offers a promising platform for fluorescence imaging of intracellular GSH in living cells, and further enriches in situ analysis of the in vitro toxicology.

200 Effect of Long-term Feeding of Deoxynivalenol (DON) Contaminated Diets on Performance of Grower-finisher Pigs

Abstract Previous studies examining the effects of deoxynivalenol (DON) intake in pigs have largely focused on young animals or have been over a short period of time. The objective of the present study was to determine the effects of long-term feeding of DON contaminated diets on growth performance of grower-finisher pigs. A total of 240 mixed-sex pigs (35.9 ± 1.1 kg) were group housed in 6 pigs/pen (n = 10/treatment) and were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 dietary treatments for 77 d. Diets consisted of a control diet (CON) containing no DON or a diet containing 1, 3, or 5 ppm DON (DON1, DON3, or DON5) achieved by adding DON-contaminated wheat and wheat screenings at the expense of clean wheat. In the grower period, DON5-fed pigs had reduced average daily gain (ADG) compared to CON, with DON1 and DON3-fed pigs being intermediate P &amp;lt; 0.05). There was no effect of dietary treatment on ADG in the finisher period (P &amp;gt; 0.05). Overall the entire study, DON3 and DON5-fed pigs had similar and reduced ADG (P &amp;lt; 0.05) compared to CON and DON1, which did not differ (P &amp;gt; 0.05). Feed intake was reduced in DON-fed pigs in the finisher period (3.12, 2.97, 2.96, and 2.88 ± 0.05; P&amp;lt; 0.05) and in DON3 and DON5-fed pigs overall (2.62, 2.55, 2.47, 2.47 ± 0.03; P &amp;lt; 0.05) compared to CON, with no overall effect observed in the grower period. There was no effect on feed efficiency in any period (P &amp;gt; 0.05). The decrease in performance resulted in reduced final body weight in DON3 and DON5-fed pigs, compared to CON, with DON1-fed pigs being intermediate (P &amp;gt; 0.05). Overall, the effects of DON-intake on performance were variable and generally occurred rapidly after initial exposure and appear to be largely due to the reduction in feed intake.

247 The Effect of Feeding Low Complexity Diets Contaminated with Deoxynivalenol and Supplemented with Nutramixtm or Fish Oil on Nursery Pig Growth Performance

Abstract Three hundred twenty newly weaned pigs (6.7±0.3 kg BW) were used to determine the effect of low complexity diets contaminated with deoxynivalenol (DON) and supplemented with NutraMixTM or fish oil on nursery pig growth performance. Pigs were randomly divided into 40 pens and assigned to 1 of 5 dietary treatments (n = 8): [1] high-complexity diet containing animal proteins (HC) or one of four low complexity diets with protein supplied only by corn and soybean meal with [2] no DON contamination (LC), or [3] DON contamination of 3 ppm without supplements (DON-), [4] with NutraMixTM supplementation (2 g/kg; DONNM), or [5] with fish oil supplementation (2.5%, as-fed; DONω3). Diets were fed over two phases (7 and 15 days, respectively) and a common phase III diet was fed to all pigs for 20 days. In phase I, ADG, ADFI, and G:F were not different between pigs fed the HC and LC diets, but were lower for pigs fed DONNM and DONω3(P &amp;lt; 0.05). In phase II, pigs fed the DON- and DONω3 diets had lower ADG than LC (375 vs. 410 g/d; P &amp;lt; 0.05) and lower ADFI than HC (452 vs. 519 g/d; P &amp;lt; 0.05), while pigs fed DON- and DONω3 had greater G:F than those fed HC (0.83 vs. 0.78; P &amp;lt; 0.05). The BW at the end of phase II were not different between HC and LC (13.0 kg), but tended to be less for DONω3 (12.6 kg; P = 0.084 and 0.079, respectively). In phase III and over the entire nursery period, there were no treatment effects on ADG, ADFI, G:F, or final BW (26.0±0.7 kg). Feeding low complexity diets contaminated with 3 ppm DON initially reduced growth performance, but pigs were still able to achieve BW not different from HC pigs at the end of the nursery period, regardless of supplementation.

Effect of long-term feeding of graded levels of deoxynivalenol on performance, nutrient utilization, and organ health of grower-finisher pigs (35 to 120 kg).

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of long-term feeding of graded levels of deoxynivalenol (DON) on performance, nutrient utilization, and organ health of grower-finisher pigs. A total of 240 mixed-sex grower-finisher pigs (35.9 ± 1.1 kg initial body weight, BW) were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 dietary treatments (6 pigs/pen; 10 pens/treatment) for 77 d. Diets consisted of a control diet without DON (CONT) and diets containing 1, 3, or 5 ppm DON (DON1, DON3, or DON5). Nitrogen-balance was determined in 1 pig/pen during weeks 6 and 12 of the study. Growth performance measures were taken weekly for average daily feed intake (ADFI), average daily gain (ADG), and gain:feed (GF) until day 77. Blood samples were collected on days 0, 14, 42, 56, and 84 from 1 pig/pen for analysis of indicators of liver and kidney function. On day 7, ADG and ADFI for pigs fed DON3 and DON5 diets were lower (P < 0.05) compared with DON1- and CONT-fed pigs. Overall, ADG and ADFI (days 0 to 77) were lower in DON3- and DON5-fed pigs compared with CONT and DON1 pigs (P < 0.05), with no difference in GF (P > 0.05). Final BW was reduced in DON3- and DON5-fed pigs (P < 0.05) compared with CONT and DON1, which were not different (P > 0.05). No significant (P > 0.05) treatment effects were observed on carcass characteristics. In the grower-phase, protein deposition (PD) was reduced in DON3 and DON5 pigs compared with CONT and DON1 pigs (P < 0.05). In the finisher phase, PD was not affected by dietary treatment (P > 0.05). There was no effect of dietary treatment on the majority of selected serum chemistry (P > 0.05). In summary, pigs exposed to diets containing > 1 ppm DON had reduced growth performance with little or no effect on nitrogen utilization, organ health, or carcass characteristics, suggesting that the negative effects of DON may be largely due to depressed feed intake.

Comparative efficacy of commercially available deoxynivalenol detoxifying feed additives on growth performance, total tract digestibility of components, and physiological responses in nursery pigs fed diets formulated with naturally contaminated corn.

Comparative efficacy of deoxynivalenol (DON) detoxifying feed additives (FA) was evaluated in growth performance (exp. 1) and apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD; exp. 2) nursery pig studies. Six corn–soybean meal-based diets were used: 1) positive control (PC, formulated with <1.5 ppm DON corn), negative control (NC, formulated with 5.5 ppm DON corn), NC + FA1 (clay plus yeast cell wall extract), NC + FA2 (aluminosilicate), NC + FA3 (aluminosilicate plus fungal extract), and NC + FA4 (sodium metabisulfite, SMB). In exp. 1, 144 pigs (body weight [BW], 10.2 ± 0.1kg) were housed (4 pigs/pen), allocated to diets (n = 6) based on BW, and fed for 4-wk. The BW and feed intake were monitored weekly. On d 7, one pig/pen was bled for plasma and euthanized for organ weight and tissue samples. Assayed DON concentration in PC, NC, NC + FA4 was 0.29, 2.86, and 1.21 ppm, respectively. In wk-1, the average daily gain (ADG) of pigs fed NC + FA4 was not different (P > 0.05) to that of pigs fed PC diet but greater (P = 0.01) than for pigs fed NC without or with other FA. Pigs fed NC and NC + FA2 had lower (P = 0.026) average daily feed intake (ADFI) than pigs fed PC and NC + FA3. Pigs fed NC + FA4 had greater (P = 0.003) G:F than pigs fed the other diets. Diets had no effect (P > 0.05) on ADG, ADFI, and G: F after first week, plasma concentration of urea and creatinine or liver and spleen weight. Pigs fed NC diets had greater (P = 0.01) jejunal mRNA expression of superoxide dismutase 1 relative to pigs fed PC or NC plus FA. Jejunal histomorphology and mRNA expression of nutrient transporters, inflammatory cytokines, and tight junction proteins and ceca digesta concentration of short-chain fatty acids were not affected (P > 0.05) by the diet. In exp. 2, 24 barrows (BW 10.2 ± 0.3 kg) were individually placed in metabolism crates and allocated to four diets: PC, NC, NC + FA3, and NC + FA4 (n = 6) containing TiO2 as digestibility marker. Pigs were adjusted to diets for 5 d, followed by a 2-d grab fecal sample collection. Pigs fed PC and NC + FA4 diets had higher ATTD of dry matter, gross energy, and crude protein than NC fed pigs. The FA3 was intermediate in digestibility response. In conclusion, FA containing sequestering component plus fungal extract or SMB in DON-contaminated feed resulted in commensurate nursery pig performance to PC. The tested FA mitigated intestinal oxidative stress through decreased expression of genes for superoxide dismutase.

Effect of long-term feeding of graded levels of deoxynivalenol (DON) on growth performance, nutrient utilization, and organ health in finishing pigs and DON content in biological samples.

The prevalence of deoxynivalenol (DON) is a concern for swine producers, and although there has been extensive research into the effects of DON in pigs, focus has been in young pigs and/or in short-term studies. The objective of the study was to determine the effect of long-term exposure to DON-contaminated diets in finisher pigs. A total of 200 pigs (76.6 ± 3.9 kg initial weight) were group housed (five pigs per pen; n = 10 pens/treatment) in a 6-wk trial. Pigs were fed a wheat-barley-soybean meal-based control (CONT) diet with no DON or the basal diet in which clean wheat was replaced by DON-contaminated wheat and wheat screenings to provide DON content of 1, 3, or 5 ppm (DON1, DON3, and DON5, respectively). Individual BW and pen feed intake were recorded weekly to calculate average daily gain (ADG), average daily feed intake (ADFI), and gain to feed ratio (G:F). Blood was collected on days 0, 14, and 43 and analyzed for indicators of liver and kidney health. Nitrogen (N)-balance was conducted immediately following the growth performance period to determine the effect of DON on nutrient utilization. Blood and urine samples collected during N balance were analyzed for DON content. Feeding DON reduced (P < 0.05) ADFI and ADG from days 0 to 28 compared with CONT, after which there was no effect of diet on ADFI and ADG. The G:F was lower (P < 0.05) in DON5 fed pigs compared with all treatments during days 0 to 7; however, no treatment effects on G:F was observed from days 8 to 42. Nitrogen retention was lower (P < 0.05) in DON3 and DON5 compared with DON1-fed pigs. Nitrogen retention efficiency was higher (P < 0.05) in DON1 compared with DON3 and DON5 and protein deposition for DON1 pigs was higher (P < 0.05) than all treatments. There were no treatment effects on indicators of liver and kidney health. As dietary DON intake increased, concentration of DON in blood and urine increased. Overall, although there was an initial decrease in ADG and ADFI in pigs receiving diets containing >1 ppm DON, pig performance recovered after a period of time, whereas nutrient utilization continued to be affected after recovery of performance. Moreover, the lack of DON on G:F indicates that the negative effects of DON on growth performance are largely due to reduced feed intake. Overall, although pigs maybe capable of adapting to intake of DON-contaminated diets, their final body weight will be reduced when fed diets containing >1 ppm DON.

Effects of the mycotoxin metabolite de-epoxy-deoxynivalenol (DOM-1) on embryo development and sperm motility in cattle.

Contamination of animal feed with Fusarium spp results in accumulation of mycotoxins including deoxynivalenol. In animals, deoxynivalenol is metabolized to de-epoxy deoxynivalenol (DOM-1), which is generally considered to be a non-toxic metabolite; however, recent studies demonstrated that DOM-1 can reduce steroid production and induce apoptosis in the bovine ovary. The objectives of this study were to assess the effects of DOM-1 on applied aspects of reproductive function in cattle, specifically sperm function and embryo development in vitro and follicle growth and superovulatory responses in vivo. The effect of naturally contaminated feed on superovulatory responses was assessed; a dose of 6ppm deoxynivalenol increased blood DOM-1 concentrations to 20ng/ml, but this did not alter the number of viable embryos recovered on day 7. However, intrafollicular injection of DOM-1 (100ng/ml) directly into the growing dominant follicle resulted in cessation of follicular growth over the subsequent 3days. Treatment with DOM-1 reduced motility of bull spermatozoa over a 10-h period in vitro. Addition of DOM-1 to oocytes in vitro during IVM did not alter rates of cumulus expansion and nuclear maturation, but treatment during IVF reduced the rate of blastocyst formation. These data illustrate that DOM-1 is more biologically active than previously thought and negatively impacted reproductive outcomes in cattle.

A mycotoxin transporter (4D) from a library of deoxynivalenol-tolerant microorganisms.

New strategies are needed to mitigate the mycotoxin deoxynivalenol (DON) in feed and food products. Microbial DNA fragments were generated from a library of DON-tolerant microorganisms. These fragments were screened in DON-sensitive yeast strains for their ability to modify or transport DON. Fragments were cloned into a PCR8/TOPO vector, and recombined into the yeast vector, pYES-DEST52. Resulting yeast transformants were screened in the presence of 100 ppm DON. Transformants that were able to grow in the presence of DON were plated on a selective medium, and the cloned microbial DNA fragments were sequenced. BLAST queries of one microbial DNA fragment (4D) showed a high degree of similarity to an ABC transporter. A series of screening and inhibition assays were conducted with a transport inhibitor (propanol), to test the hypothesis that 4D is a mycotoxin transporter. DON concentrations did not change for yeast transformants expressing 4D. The ability of yeast transformants expressing 4D to transport DON was inhibited by the addition of propanol. Moreover, yeast transformants expressing a known efflux pump (PDR5) showed similar trends in propanol transport inhibition compared to 4D. Future work should consider mycotoxin transporters such as 4D to the development of transgenic plants to limit DON accumulation in seeds.

SERS using two-photon polymerized nanostructures for mycotoxin detection.

Improved chemical- and bio-sensing with Surface Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy (SERS) requires nanostuctures that can be flexibly designed and fabricated with different physical and optical properties. Here, we present nano-pillar arrays ranging from 200 nm to 600 nm as SERS substrates for mycotoxin detection that are fabricated by means of two-photon polymerization. We built a nominal shape and a voxel-based model for simulating the enhancement of the electric field of the nano-pillar arrays using the Finite-Difference Time-Domain (FDTD) method. A new model was built based on the Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) data obtained from the fabricated nanostructures and introduced into a FDTD model. We demonstrated the enhancement behavior by measuring the Raman spectrum of Rhodamine B solutions. Both the simulations and experimental results suggest that the 200 nm nano-pillar array has the highest Enhancement Factor (EF). Besides, we determined the limit of detection of the 200 nm pillar array by performing Raman measurements on Rhodamine B solutions with different concentrations. The detection limit of our 200 nm nano-pillar array is 0.55 μM. Finally we discriminated 1 ppm deoxynivalenol and 1.25 ppm fumonisin b1 in acetonitrile solutions by our SERS substrate in combination with principal component analysis. This versatile approach for SERS substrates fabrication gives new opportunities for material characterization in chemical and biological applications.

357 Evaluation of growth performance and physiology of nursery pigs fed deoxynivalenol (DON) contaminated feed supplemented with commercial feed additives (CFA)

Abstract Four commercial feed additives (CFA) were evaluated for efficacy in detoxifying deoxynivalenol (DON) in diets fed to 144 nursery pigs (BW 9.80+/- 0.5kg; 2 gilts, and 2 barrows/pen). Six test corn-soybean-meal based diets were: 1) positive control (PC), formulated with clean corn (NC), 2) formulated with contaminated corn (5.5 ppm DON), 3) NC with enzyme+binder1 (NCB1), 4) NC with clay (NCC), 5) NC with enzyme+binder2 (NCB2) and 6) NC with sodium metabisulfite (NCP). Diets were allocated to pens (n = 6) based on BW and fed ad-libitum for 4-wk; BW and feed intake were monitored weekly. At the end of wk-1, one pig/pen was euthanized for tissue collection. Assayed DON concentration for PC, NC, NCB1, NCC, NCB2 and NCP were 0.38, 2.3, 2.3, 2.3, 2.4, and 1.9 ppm, respectively. Diet effects were only observed for ADG and G:F in wk-1; pigs fed NCP had higher (P = 0.01) ADG compared to pigs fed NC and NCC, whilst pigs fed other diets had intermediate and similar ADG (P &gt; 0.05) to pigs fed NC or NCC. Pigs fed NCP showed higher (P = 0.02) G:F relative to pigs fed other diets. The final BW was 31.3, 30.8, 30.4, 30.8, 31.1 and 32.2kg for PC, NC, NCB1, NCC, NCB2 and NCP-fed pigs, respectively. There were no (P &gt; 0.05) diet effects on ADFI throughout the study. There was no (P &gt; 0.05) diet effects on liver and spleen weight, jejunum morphology and concentration of plasma creatinine and urea. Ceca digesta concentration of citric acid was higher (P = 0.03) in pigs fed NCP than pigs fed NCB2. In conclusion, the lack of differences between PC and NC suggested pigs were tolerant to higher DON levels than the regulated dietary maximum of 1 ppm. Improved ADG and G:F due to NCP vs. NC was transient and was not linked to physiological responses.

The effects of naturally occurring or purified deoxynivalenol (DON) on growth performance, nutrient utilization and histopathology of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)

It has been previously established that rainbow trout are extremely sensitive to the ubiquitous Fusarium mycotoxin deoxynivalenol (DON); however, the contribution of co-occurring mycotoxins and/or their potential interactions with DON have not been discounted. Concurrently, there have been few systematic efforts to characterize the pathological basis of the sensitivity of rainbow trout to DON. This study was conducted to investigate these outstanding issues. Triplicate groups of rainbow trout (initial average body weight = 50.3 g/fish) were fed eight diets containing graded levels of purified DON (0, 0.7, 1.4 and 2.1 ppm) or DON from naturally contaminated corn (0, 2.1, 4.1 and 5.9 ppm) for eight weeks. Fish experienced significant linear decreases in weight gain (P < .0001), thermal-unit growth coefficient (TGC; P < .0001) and feed intake (P < .0001) regardless of the source of DON. Similarly, significant linear and/or quadratic decreases (P < .01) in feed efficiency (FE), whole body crude protein (CP) content, retained nitrogen (RN), recovered energy (RE) and nitrogen retention efficiency (NRE) were observed in fish fed the diets containing either purified or naturally occurring DON. There were no significant differences (P > .025) in the above mentioned parameters between fish fed the diets contaminated with the same level of purified or naturally occurring DON (2.1 ppm). In general, bi-weekly sampling (6 fish/treatment/sampling) revealed significant linear or quadratic increases in dead (apoptotic/necrotic) cells in the pyloric caeca and significant linear or quadratic decreases in mitotic cells in the pyloric caeca and liver with increasing dietary levels of purified DON or DON from naturally contaminated corn without any distinct histopathological abnormalities (i.e. lesions). These cellular changes are in agreement with the known ability of DON to activate mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) indicating that the mechanism of action of DON in rainbow trout is consistent with that described in other species. Comparison of the response of fish fed the diet containing 2.1 ppm purified DON and 2.1 ppm DON from naturally contaminated corn suggested that decreased growth performance and nutrient utilization efficiency of rainbow trout exposed to grains naturally contaminated with Fusarium mycotoxins was most probably associated mainly with DON; however, continued research involving multiple levels of purified and naturally occurring DON is necessary to verify this finding.

Molecular and Physiological Effects on the Small Intestine of Weaner Pigs Following Feeding with Deoxynivalenol-Contaminated Feed.

We intended to assess how exposure of piglets to deoxynivalenol (DON)-contaminated feed impacted their growth, immune response and gut development. Piglets were fed traditional Phase I, Phase II and Phase III diets with the control group receiving 0.20–0.40 ppm DON (referred to as the Control group) and treatment group receiving much higher level of DON-contaminated wheat (3.30–3.80 ppm; referred to as DON-contaminated group). Feeding a DON-contaminated diet had no impact on average daily feed intake (ADFI) (p < 0.08) or average daily gain (ADG) (p > 0.10) but it did significantly reduce body weight over time relative to the control piglets (p < 0.05). Cytokine analysis after initial exposure to the DON-contaminated feed did not result in significant differences in serum interleukin (IL) IL1β, IL-8, IL-13, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α or interferon (IFN)-γ. After day 24, no obvious changes in jejunum or ileum gut morphology, histology or changes in gene expression for IL-1β, IL-6, IL-10, TNFα, or Toll-like receptor (TLR)-4 genes. IL-8 showed a trend towards increased expression in the ileum in DON-fed piglets. A significant increase in gene expression for claudin (CLDN) 7 gene expression and a trend towards increased CLDN 2-expression was observed in the ileum in piglets fed the highly DON-contaminated wheat. Because CLDN localization was not negatively affected, we believe that it is unlikely that gut permeability was affected. Exposure to DON-contaminated feed did not significantly impact weaner piglet performance or gut physiology.

High Sensitivity of Aged Mice to Deoxynivalenol (Vomitoxin)-Induced Anorexia Corresponds to Elevated Proinflammatory Cytokine and Satiety Hormone Responses.

Deoxynivalenol (DON), a trichothecene mycotoxin that commonly contaminates cereal grains, is a public health concern because of its adverse effects on the gastrointestinal and immune systems. The objective of this study was to compare effects of DON on anorectic responses in aged (22 mos) and adult (3 mos) mice. Aged mice showed increased feed refusal with both acute i.p. (1 mg/kg and 5 mg/kg) and dietary (1, 2.5, 10 ppm) DON exposure in comparison to adult mice. In addition to greater suppression of food intake from dietary DON exposure, aged mice also exhibited greater but transient body weight suppression. When aged mice were acutely exposed to 1 mg/kg bw DON i.p., aged mice displayed elevated DON and DON3GlcA tissue levels and delayed clearance in comparison with adult mice. Acute DON exposure also elicited higher proinflammatory cytokine and satiety hormone responses in the plasma of the aged group compared with the adult group. Increased susceptibility to DON-induced anorexia in aged mice relative to adult mice suggests that advanced life stage could be a critical component in accurate human risk assessments for DON and other trichothecenes.

Single‐Kernel Near‐Infrared Analysis for Evaluating Wheat Samples for Fusarium Head Blight Resistance

ABSTRACTThis report describes a method to estimate the bulk deoxynivalenol (DON) content of wheat grain samples with the single‐kernel DON levels estimated by a single‐kernel near‐infrared (SKNIR) system combined with single‐kernel weights. The described method estimated the bulk DON levels in 90% of 160 grain samples to within 6.7 ppm of DON when compared with the DON content determined with the gas chromatography–mass spectrometry method. The single‐kernel DON analysis showed that the DON content among DON‐containing kernels (DCKs) varied considerably. The analysis of the distribution of DON levels among all kernels and among the DCKs of grain samples is helpful for the in‐depth evaluation of the effect of varieties or fungicides on Fusarium head blight (FHB) reactions. The SKNIR DON analysis and estimation of the single‐kernel DON distribution patterns demonstrated in this study may be helpful for wheat breeders to evaluate the FHB resistance of varieties in relation to their resistance to the spread of the disease and resistance to DON accumulation.

Effects of an algae-modified montmorillonite clay on growth performance of nursery pigs fed diets contaminated with low levels of deoxynivalenol (2014)

A total of 360 barrows (PIC 1050; initially 25.1 lb and 45 d of age) were used in a 21-d growth trial to evaluate the effects of an algae-modified montmorillonite clay (AMMC) on nursery pig performance when fed diets contaminated with low levels of deoxynivalenol (DON). Pigs were allotted to pens by weight, and pens were randomly assigned to 1 of 9 dietary treatments arranged in a 3 × 3 factorial with main effects of DON (0, 1.5 ppm, or 3.0 ppm) and AMMC inclusion (0, 0.17%, or 0.50% ). There were 5 pigs per pen and 8 pens per treatment. Mycotoxin analyses were conducted on the main ingredients at NDSU3 and LDA Labs4, and the results were used in diet formulation. Naturally contaminated wheat (6.03 ppm DON) was used to produce diets with desired DON levels. No significant DON × AMMC interactions were observed during the entire study. Overall (d 0 to 21), increasing DON concentration in the diet decreased (1.22 vs. 1.10 vs. 1.07 lb; linear, P < 0.001) ADG and d-21 BW as a result of decreased ADFI (2.13 vs. 2.05 vs. 2.11 lb; quadratic, P < 0.01) and poorer feed efficiency (1.49 vs. 1.50 vs. 1.64; linear, P < 0.001). As expected, DON-related growth reductions were most marked from d 0 to 7 (15 to 22% lower) and least distinct in the final period, d 14 to 21 (5 to 6% lower). Incorporating AMMC at increasing levels had no effect on ADG, ADFI, feed efficiency, or final BW. Overall, the results of this study reinforce prior research showing that even low levels of DON significantly reduce nursery pig growth, but the addition of AMMC does not offset the deleterious effects of DON.; Swine Day, Manhattan, KS, November 20, 2014

Effects of composite antimicrobial peptides in weanling piglets challenged with deoxynivalenol: I. Growth performance, immune function, and antioxidation capacity1

The mycotoxin deoxynivalenol (DON) is a food contaminant that leads to reduced feed intake and reduced BW gain, as well as organ impairment. On the other hand, antimicrobial peptides have been shown to have positive effects on growth performance, nutrient digestibility, and immune function. The purpose of this study was to investigate the protective effects of composite antimicrobial peptides (CAP) on piglets challenged with DON. After a 7-d adaptation period, 28 individually housed piglets (Duroc × Landrace × Large Yorkshire) weaned at 28 d of age were randomly assigned to receive 1 of 4 treatments (7 pigs/treatment): negative control, basal diet (NC), basal diet + 0.4% CAP (CAP), basal diet + 4 mg/kg DON (DON), and basal diet + 4 ppm DON + 0.4% CAP (DON + CAP). On d 15 and 30 after the initiation of treatment, blood samples were collected for the determination of blood profile. Piglets were monitored for 30 d to assess performance and then were slaughtered to obtain organs for the determination of the relative weight of organs. The results showed that dietary supplementation with DON decreased (P < 0.05) ADFI, ADG, and G:F, whereas dietary supplementation with CAP improved ADG and G:F (P < 0.05). The relative weight of the kidney and pancreas was greater and the relative weight of the spleen was lighter in the DON treatment than in the other 3 treatments (P < 0.05). There were no effects (P > 0.05) on other relative weights of viscera, except the relative weight of the gallbladder, but the diamine oxidase activity in the liver decreased in DON-treated piglets (P < 0.05). Piglets in the DON treatment had increased serum concentrations of alkaline phosphatase, alanine transaminase, and aspartate aminotransferase and a dramatic decrease in total protein (P < 0.05), whereas there were no differences (P > 0.05) between the DON + CAP treatment and the other treatments. The DON treatment decreased the numbers of red blood cells and platelets, as well as the serum catalase concentrations, and decreased the serum concentrations of H2O2, maleic dialdehyde, and nitric oxide (P < 0.05). The numbers of platelets and thrombocytocrit, as well as the serum concentrations of catalase, were greater, whereas the maleic dialdehyde concentrations were decreased, in both the CAP and DON + CAP treatments compared with the other treatments (P < 0.05). Compared with the control treatment, DON decreased peripheral lymphocyte proliferation on d 15, whereas supplementation with CAP increased it on d 15 and 30 (P < 0.05). These findings indicate that CAP could improve feed efficiency, immune function, and antioxidation capacity and alleviate organ damage, and thus, it has a protective effect in piglets challenged with DON.