Pox Lesions Research Articles

T cell inactivation by poxviral B22 family proteins increases viral virulence.

Infections with monkeypox, cowpox and weaponized variola virus remain a threat to the increasingly unvaccinated human population, but little is known about their mechanisms of virulence and immune evasion. We now demonstrate that B22 proteins, encoded by the largest genes of these viruses, render human T cells unresponsive to stimulation of the T cell receptor by MHC-dependent antigen presentation or by MHC-independent stimulation. In contrast, stimuli that bypass TCR-signaling are not inhibited. In a non-human primate model of monkeypox, virus lacking the B22R homologue (MPXVΔ197) caused only mild disease with lower viremia and cutaneous pox lesions compared to wild type MPXV which caused high viremia, morbidity and mortality. Since MPXVΔ197-infected animals displayed accelerated T cell responses and less T cell dysregulation than MPXV US2003, we conclude that B22 family proteins cause viral virulence by suppressing T cell control of viral dissemination.

Molecular identification of local field isolated fowl pox virus strain from Giza governorate of Egypt

Aim: Molecular identification of field isolated pox virus from infected chickens in Egyptian farms in 2012 by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Materials and Methods: Isolation and identification of fowl pox virus (FPV isolate ch-08TK) from 30 day-old chickens manifesting pox lesions. The isolate was propagated successfully on chorioallantioc membrane of specific pathogen free (SPF) embryonated chicken eggs and clear pock lesions were observed. These lesions were homogenated and used to infected 4.5 SPF chickens and pigeons (via wing web route for chickens and via feather follicle route into the thigh of pigeons) using 10 EID /mL; uninoculated birds of each species were used as negative controls for determining the effect of isolated FPV strain. 50 Result: The isolated strain gave pathogenic takes 100% in chickens and 75% in pigeons. Virus identification by PCR was done using dream Tag master mix kit using the primers that targeted thymidinekinase (TK) gene. These primers were designed using Lasergene DNASTAR software Version 10. We used these primers to amplify a 305 bp fragment of the TK gene of FPV. Phylogenetic analysis of sequenced TK amplicone which reflects a new emerging isolate of the field isolated FPV gave very limited similarity (not exceeding 60%) with the published sequences. Thus FPV isolate ch-08 TK gene (with Accession No. KF314718 in Gen Bank) is different than canary, Egypt, 2012, P4b and Elsharqyia-FWPV2 FPV140 (FPV140); TKPV FPV140 (FPV140) and PGPV FPV (FPV140) which have been isolated from cases of avipox virus in 2011 from skin crust of different domesticated birds reared under the Egyptian backyard management system. Our sequencing and phylogenetic analysis of newly isolated virus using DNASTAR software Version 10 revealed that this virus differ from canary, Egypt, 2012, P4b and Elsharqyia-(FWPV2 FPV140 (FPV140); TKPV FPV140 (FPV140) and PGPV FPV (FPV140)) according to published data in Gen Bank. Conclusion: FPV (isolated ch-08 TK gene with Accession number KF314718 in Gen Bank) was isolated from 30 day old laying chickens suffering from pox lesions. We believe that this study is the first molecular identification of FPV strain from laying chickens in Egypt.

English

Pyoderma Gangrenosum (PG) rare neutrophilic dermatoses (1/100,000), of which Bullous Pyoderma gangrenosum is an atypical form, which is very rare. Bullous PG is usually associated with haematological disorders like myeloproliferative disorders, haematological malignancies specially AML and several other haematological disorders. It presents as a superficial haemorrhagic bulla which ulcerates, ulcers increase in size and heal with scarring. Treatment is mainly to identify and treat the cause. Pyoderma Gangrenosum shows rapid response to oral corticosteroid therapy. 1, 3 . Clinical presentation: A 32yr old female presented with fever, multiple vesicles on face, upper limb, lower limb and trunk, and these early lesions looked like chicken pox lesions. Lesions increased in size to form haemorrhagic bullas which eroded to form ulcers, ulcers rapidly increased in size with necrotic base and erythematous to violaceous border. Investigation: Haemoglobin: 5.7gm%, Peripheral smear: normocytic and normochromic anaemia. Skin Biopsy: Sub corneal blisters with dermal and perifollicular neutrophilic infiltrate. A diagnosis of Bullous Pyoderma gangrenosum was made. Patient's anaemia was treated; oral prednisolone and topical steroids were started. Patient showed marked improvement to treatment. INTRODUCTION: Pyoderma gangrenosum (PG) is a rare, non-infectious neutrophilic dermatoses commonly associated with underlying systemic disease. Diagnosis is based on typical clinical features and exclusion of other cutaneous ulcerating diseases. It is associated with ulcerative colitis, Crohn's disease, Rheumatoid arthritis, Connective tissue disease like SLE, certain infections and drugs. Bullous PG is a rare atypical variant, which presents with superficial haemorrhagic bulla and is usually associated with haematological disorders like haematological malignancies, myeloproliferative disorders and other haematological disorders. Skin biopsy shows intra epidermal bulla with dermal and perifollicular neutrophilic infiltrate. Treatment is to identify and treat the cause. Good clinical improvement is seen with systemic steroids and topical steroids. This article describes a rare case of Bullous PG, the early lesions of which mimicked chicken pox and patient showed marked response to systemic steroids. CASE REPORT: A 32 year old female presented with fever, multiple vesicles and bulla on face, upper limb, lower limb and trunk, burning sensation on lesions. Many vesicles were present on an erythematous base, like a dew drop on rose petal appearance, at this point a clinical diagnosis of chicken pox was made and treated was started for the same. Vesicles increased in size to form a large haemorrhagic bulla, bulla eroded to form ulcers. The ulcers rapidly increased in size by more than 1 cm/day. These ulcers had a necrotic base and erythematous to violaceous border and central black eschar.

Evaluation of a commercial vaccine against avian poxvirus in turkeys kept in the backyard system in the state of Yucatan, Mexico

One hundred and sixty 1-month-old turkey poults were delivered to 40 households in four communities of the State of Yucatan, Mexico. The poults were divided into two populations, one vaccinated and the other non-vaccinated against avian pox. During three months, monthly visits were carried out in order to monitor the appearance of lesions suggesting avian pox in the birds delivered. Each turkey was clinically examined, searching for characteristic avian pox lesions that were classified according to the degree of severity observed. The true incidence rate and the cumulative incidence rate of avian pox were determined and the true incidence and cumulative incidence rates of mortality were determined and the relative risks calculated. The true incidence rates for avian pox in vaccinated and non-vaccinated birds were 1.5 and 1.47 respectively. The cumulative incidence rates were 0.94 and 0.90 for vaccinated and non-vaccinated birds, respectively. The comparison for the whole period between vaccinated and non-vaccinated groups did not show a significant statistical difference for mortality. However, when mortality was compared between vaccinated and non-vaccinated turkeys for each month of the study, there was a statistically significant difference for the first month (relative risk = 0.216, confidence interval 0.069 to 0.676). In addition, when the severity of pox lesions between groups was compared, statistically significant differences were found in favour of the vaccinated birds (P < 0.0001).

Molecular detection of Yaba monkey tumour virus from a vervet monkey

Yaba monkey tumour virus (YMTV) was first diagnosed in a colony of captive rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) in Yaba, Nigeria. It has been implicated as the cause of cutaneous nodules in wild baboons (Papio species), rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) and cynomolgus monkeys (Macaca fascicularis). This article reports a case of cutaneous pox lesions caused by YMTV in a free-ranging adult female vervet monkey (Chlorocebus pygerythrus) from the Umkomaas coastal area in South Africa. The virus was identified by molecular sequencing from fragments of the insulin metalloprotease-like protein and intracellular mature virion membrane protein as well as the DNA polymerase genes. Phylogenetic analyses of these gene regions revealed a 99% similarity of the sample to YMTV. Although human disease caused by YMTV is normally mild, it is recommended that persons in contact with non-human primates in the area of Umkomaas who develop cutaneous lesions should inform their doctors of the possibility of this infection. The extent and significance of the virus to human and non-human primates in South Africa are not known. To the authors’ knowledge, this is the first diagnosis of YMTV in South Africa and in vervet monkeys.

Clinical and pathological findings of concurrent poxvirus lesions and aspergillosis infection in canaries

ObjectiveTo investigate clinical, pathological and mycological findings in canaries, in which pox lesions and Aspergillus fumigatus (A. fumigatus) infection were observed simultaneously. MethodsThis study was performed on a breeding colony (about 100 canaries) affected by fatal wasting disease. Necropsy was undertaken on 10 severely affected canaries, and gross lesions were recorded. Samples from internal organs displaying lesions were obtained for histopathological evaluation. Tracheal swap samples of internal organs of the all infected animals with lesions at necropsy were cultured in Sabouraud Dextrose Agar for mycological examination. ResultsAt necropsy, caseous foci were determined in the lungs, on the air sacs, liver, spleen, heart. Swelling of the eyelids, diffuse hemorrhages in the subcutaneous tissue with small papular lesions of the skin were other typical necropsy findings. Histopathologically, pathognomonic eosinophilic intracytoplasmic inclusion bodies, which called Bollinger bodies, in both skin cells and vacuolated air way epithelial cells confirmed canary pox infection. Moreover, histopathological examination of the white-yellowish caseous foci revealed necrotic granulomatous reaction consisting of macrophages, heterophil leukocytes and giant cells encapsulated with a fibrous tissue. After the culture of the tissue samples, the formation of bluish green colonies confirmed A. fumigatus infection. ConclusionsCanary pox has been known as the disease that can result in high losses in a short time, as a re-emerging disease that has not been present during recent years in canary flocks in Iran. So, the current paper provides useful information to prevent misdiagnosed of canary pox disease which can cause secondary mycotic infection.

Inhibitory Activity of Avicennia marina, a Medicinal Plant in Persian Folk Medicine, against HIV and HSV.

Avicennia marina (Avicenniaceae) is a species of mangrove tree used for treatment of small pox lesions in Persian folk medicine. The antiviral activity of methanol, ethanol, water, chloroform and n-hexane extracts was evaluated against HIV-1 and HSV. Methanol extract had the highest antiviral activity and the most polar fraction of this extract (fraction D) inhibited HSV with TI and SI values of 57.1 and 133; however, it showed mild activity against HIV with SI value of 6.25 (fraction 3). The anti-HSV activity of active fraction was confirmed using FLASH-PCR. Phytochemical investigation revealed that fraction D encompasses flavonoids compounds. The time-of-addition study demonstrated that fraction D disturbs viral replication after penetrating to the cell. A. marina was endowed with fragments by which found to be able to inhibit replication of HSV after entry but did not show significant potency against HIV-1. This promotes further investigation in anti-HSV drug discovery.

Study on immunogenicity of combined sheep and goat pox and peste des petitis ruminants vaccines in small ruminants in Ethiopia

The study was conducted at the National Veterinary Institute (NVI), Ethiopia, with the objective of evaluating the immunogenicity of combined peste des petits ruminants (PPR) and sheep and goat pox (SGP) vaccines under laboratory and field conditions for possible use of a cost efficient vaccine based disease control strategy. Vaccines of PPR and SGP were prepared using PPR75/1 (LK6 Vero74) and Kenyan sheep and goat pox (0180) strains separately as per NVI vaccine production protocol. Sera were collected from a total of 100 unvaccinated small ruminants (40 sheep and 60 goats) and screened for the presence of PPR and SGP virus specific antibodies. Then, animals that were found negative for the diseases were grouped, vaccinated, and clinically monitored by regular observations and by recording daily rectal temperature. Serum samples were collected at regular intervals for determination of sero-conversion. Challenge test was conducted separately for PPR and sheeppox vaccines and in combination of the two. Generally, vaccination against PPR and sheep pox using both combined and one vaccine alone conferred good protective efficacy. Both sheep and goats vaccinated against sheep pox using both combined vaccine and sheeppox vaccine alone were protected against challenge infection. The PPR trial showed that 50% of the control groups showed rise in body temperature and 37.5% of them died of PPR, while for sheep pox challenge group, 52.6% (n = 10/19) from the unvaccinated group showed typical pox lesion (fever, nodules) and 15.8% (n = 3/19) died of sheep pox. The serological test result show that vaccinated goats with PPR were sero-positive up to 75% and it reached 100% immediately post challenge, while sheep pox vaccinated groups showed up to 1/128 sero-positivity in serum neutralization test. Key words: Sheep and goatpox, PPR, vaccine, seroconversion, Ethiopia.

Histopathological study of cutaneous form of Avipoxvirus infection in Jungle crow Corvus macrorhynchos

Aim: A detailed histopathological examination of the samples collected from morbid jungle crow was performed to know the cause of death. Materials and Methods: Gross as well as histopathological examination was conducted. The suspected tissues get processed by formalin fixation and paraffin embedding technique. Result: On gross examination, dry pox lesions were seen on the external body surface whereas no internal lesions were observed. However on histopathological examination, the keratin layer of the epidermis was found to be intact and there was extensive proliferation of subdermal connective tissue infiltrated with polymorph mononuclear (PMN) cells. There was marked ballooning of keratinocytes. Swollen keratinocytes had enlarged pleomorphic and hyper-chromatic nuclei. Several keratinocytes also showed presence of eosinophilic intracytoplasmic inclusions (Bollinger bodies) which was considered confirmatory. Conclusion: Avipoxvirus infection was noticed in a jungle crow. On histopathological study, proliferation of subdermal connective tissue, swollen keratinocytes, pleomorphic and hyper-chromatic nucleus and eosinophilic intracytoplasmic inclusions were noticed.

Prevalence of pathological conditions causing skin damage and consequently reducing its market value in domestic ruminants of Punjab, Pakistan

Data regarding the prevalence of skin diseases reducing the market value of skins and hides and ultimately refined leather were not available in Pakistan. The current study was conducted in the hide/skin markets and abattoirs of Lahore and Faisalabad and tanneries of Sheikhupura, Kasur and Sialkot. The record of various skin diseases and conditions damaging the skin/hide of cattle, goat and sheep was made. Lesions, extent and type of damage were recorded. A total of 21,671 skins / hides were examined out of which 3918 of skins and 600 hides were examined at the abattoirs of Lahore and Faisalabad, 6784 Skins and 1399 hides at hide markets and 8091 skins and 879 hides at tanneries. Out of total 21,671 skins / hides, 66.12% were normal and 33.88% were having some sort of damage. The data were gathered on questionnaire sheets. The prevalence of skin diseases was assessed through Strata V.9 software program. The correlation of the disease and area was analyzed by the chi-square. The prevalence of various diseases and damages due to mal-management in sheep, goats and cattle has been discussed in detail. The damages in goat skins were significantly less as compared with cattle and sheep. However, the type of defects and severity varied amongst various ruminants studied. The most common damages observed, overall in all species studied were atrophy of skin (Thin skin) 6.38%, followed in descending order observed was lesions of wounds 4.94%, old lesions of pox 4.82%, flaying cuts 3.17%, tick infestation 3.08%, lesions caused by mites infestation 2.45%, scratches 2.33%, lesions caused by warble fly larvae 1.47%, decomposition 1.32%, charr (fibrosis) 1.28%, ringworm infection 1.10%, extensive soiling by dung 0.84%, chronic abscesses 0.46%, and Lice infestation 0.17%.

Prevalence of pathological conditions causing skin damage and consequently reducing its market value in domestic ruminants of Punjab, Pakistan

Data regarding the prevalence of skin diseases reducing the market value of skins and hides and ultimately refined leather were not available in Pakistan. The current study was conducted in the hide/skin markets and abattoirs of Lahore and Faisalabad and tanneries of Sheikhupura, Kasur and Sialkot. The record of various skin diseases and conditions damaging the skin/hide of cattle, goat and sheep was made. Lesions, extent and type of damage were recorded. A total of 21,671 skins / hides were examined out of which 3918 of skins and 600 hides were examined at the abattoirs of Lahore and Faisalabad, 6784 Skins and 1399 hides at hide markets and 8091 skins and 879 hides at tanneries. Out of total 21,671 skins / hides, 66.12% were normal and 33.88% were having some sort of damage. The data were gathered on questionnaire sheets. The prevalence of skin diseases was assessed through Strata V.9 software program. The correlation of the disease and area was analyzed by the chi-square. The prevalence of various diseases and damages due to mal-management in sheep, goats and cattle has been discussed in detail. The damages in goat skins were significantly less as compared with cattle and sheep. However, the type of defects and severity varied amongst various ruminants studied. The most common damages observed, overall in all species studied were atrophy of skin (Thin skin) 6.38%, followed in descending order observed was lesions of wounds 4.94%, old lesions of pox 4.82%, flaying cuts 3.17%, tick infestation 3.08%, lesions caused by mites infestation 2.45%, scratches 2.33%, lesions caused by warble fly larvae 1.47%, decomposition 1.32%, charr (fibrosis) 1.28%, ringworm infection 1.10%, extensive soiling by dung 0.84%, chronic abscesses 0.46%, and Lice infestation 0.17%.

Buffalopox outbreak in humans and animals in Western Maharashtra, India

An outbreak of febrile illness with rash was reported in humans and buffaloes with pox lesions in some villages of Solapur and Kolhapur districts of Maharashtra state, India. Detailed clinico-epidemiological investigations were done with collection of blood, vesicular fluid and scab from humans and animals. A total of 166 suspected human cases from Kasegaon village in Solapur district and 185 cases were reported from 21 different villages from Kolhapur district. The attack rate in humans in Kasegaon village was 6.6% while in Kolhapur district the attack rate for buffaloes was 11.7%. Pox-like lesions were associated with fever, malaise, pain at site of lesion and axillary and inguinal lymphadenopathy in the humans. Infected buffaloes had lesions on teats, udders, external ears and eyelids. Laboratory investigations included detection of Buffalopox virus (BPXV) by electron microscopy (EM), virus isolation and polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Presence of BPXV was confirmed in 7 human cases and one buffalo in Kasegaon and 14 human cases from Kolhapur. The virus was isolated from 3 clinical specimens and Orthopoxvirus (OPXV) particles could be observed in EM. Thus, BPXV was identified as the etiological agent of the outbreak among both humans and buffaloes. Phylogenetic analysis based on the ATI and C18L gene revealed that a single strain of virus is circulating in India. Re-emergence of OPXV like BPXV is a real danger and contingency planning is needed to define prophylactic and therapeutic strategies to prevent or stop an epidemic. Considering the productivity losses caused by buffalopox infection and its zoonotic impact, the importance of control measures in reducing the economic and public health impact cannot be underestimated.

Occurrence of Dual Infection of Peste-Des-Petits-Ruminants and Goatpox in Indigenous Goats of Central India

Peste-des-petits-ruminants (PPR), bluetongue (BT) and goatpox (GP) have been well recognized as causes of significant economic losses in the small ruminant population of Asia and Africa. We describe here the occurrence of these three in an outbreak noticed in non-descript goats from a subtropical region of central India. An investigation was carried out to confirm the aetiology of the heavy mortality in goats (74.6%, 112/150), with testing of samples from 12 surviving animals exhibiting mixed clinical signs indicative of PPR, BT and GP. Sandwich ELISA was used to detect PPR virus antigen and competition ELISA to detect PPR virus and BT virus antibodies. GP was confirmed on the basis of nodular lesions and an immunodiffusion assay. Eight of the 12 affected animals (66.7%) were positive for PPR virus and BT virus antibodies, and two goats (16.7%, 2/12) exhibiting clinical lesions of pox were also found positive for PPR virus/antibodies and BT virus antibodies, respectively. Although BT virus could not be identified in any sample, detection of BT virus antibodies indicated previous or possibly concurrent infection with BT virus in these goats. The N-gene-based RT-PCR was used to confirm the PPR infection in these goats, and one of the amplicons was sequenced. The sequence and phylogenetic analysis revealed close proximity to PPR virus isolates from Tibet and China, with sequence homology of up to 96.9%. The sequence homology was relatively low with the majority of other Indian isolates (72.7-93.5%). The detection of this new PPR virus sequence indicates the circulation of cross-border strains in this region of India. It is presumed that the heavy mortality observed in goats is possibly attributable to the occurrence of mixed infection of PPR and GP, or PPR, BT and GP.

Atypical Distribution of Fowl Pox Lesions in Broilers

An unusual cutaneous fowl pox outbreak occurred in 8-wk-old broilers in California. Rounded and longitudinal, proliferative scratch-associated lesions were found only in feathered areas of the body. Both sides of the hip, the lower abdomen, pericloacal area, and lateral lower neck area were involved. The head, legs, feet, and toes did not have lesions. Birds in only one section of one of five houses were affected. Fifteen percent condemnations occurred in birds from the affected house due to the skin lesions. A diagnosis of fowl pox was achieved by histopathology, viral isolation, and direct electron microscopy. The unusual distribution of pox lesions was assumed to be associated with skin scratches. There was no evidence that mosquitoes or other types of insects were involved in this outbreak. To the knowledge of the authors, this is the first report of this kind of unusual fowl pox in the United States.

Atypical Distribution of Fowl Pox Lesions in Broilers

Atypical Distribution of Fowl Pox Lesions in Broilers

Zoonotic Infections of Buffalopox in India

Four outbreaks of buffalopox in domestic buffaloes, with considerable mortality with high case fatality rates in young buffalo calves and high morbidity with significant productivity loss in terms of reduction in milk yield in adult animals along with severe zoonotic infection in milk attendants were recorded at various places in India, during 2006-2008. In buffaloes, the pox lesions were confined to udder and teats of the majority of the affected animals, and in few animals the lesions were appeared on the hindquarters, indicating generalized infection. The overall disease morbidity, mortality and case fatality rate were 6.8%, 0.7% and 11.4% respectively. Milkers developed pox-like lesions on the hands, forearms and forehead accompanied by fever, axillary lymphadenopathy and general malaise. The causative agent of the outbreaks, buffalopox virus (BPXV), was confirmed upon virus isolation in cell culture, electron microscopy, A-type inclusion (ATI) and ankyrin repeat protein (C18L) gene-specific polymerase chain reactions (PCR). Further, sequence analysis of the BPXV isolates from human and buffalo showed more identity of ATI and C18L genes sequences with that of other orthopoxviruses at nucleotide and amino acid levels and confirmed a close relationship of BPXV with Vaccinia virus (VACV) or VACV-like viruses. Considering the zoonotic impact and productivity losses of buffalopox infection, the control measures are imperative in curtailing economic and public health impact of the disease.

Comparative sequence analysis of B5R gene of zoonotic buffalo pox virus isolates with other orthopoxviruses.

The present paper describes the isolation of buffalo pox virus from scab lesions and its molecular characterization through B5R gene sequencing. During our study, pustular pox lesions were observed on the teats and mammary parenchyma of cattle and buffaloes, and the disease was of significant zoonotic importance since similar lesions were produced on the hands, legs, and face of people in close contact with the affected animals. The collected scab materials were subjected for virus isolation in 9-11-day-old chicken embryos by the chorioallontoic membrane route and in the Vero cell line. The virus was confirmed by a sensitive and rapid diagnostic polymerase chain reaction using the primers that amplify "A type inclusion" gene, and further, B5R gene of the virus was sequenced and compared with the corresponding sequences of other orthopoxviruses. The results showed high sequence homology of our isolates with other orthopoxviruses.

Rapid non-enzymatic extraction method for isolating PCR-quality camelpox virus DNA from skin

Molecular diagnostic investigations of orthopoxvirus (OPV) infections are performed using a variety of clinical samples including skin lesions, tissues from internal organs, blood and secretions. Skin samples are particularly convenient for rapid diagnosis and molecular epidemiological investigations of camelpox virus (CMLV). Classical extraction procedures and commercial spin-column-based kits are time consuming, relatively expensive, and require multiple extraction and purification steps in addition to proteinase K digestion. A rapid non-enzymatic procedure for extracting CMLV DNA from dried scabs or pox lesions was developed to overcome some of the limitations of the available DNA extraction techniques. The procedure requires as little as 10mg of tissue and produces highly purified DNA [OD260/OD280 ratios between 1.47 and 1.79] with concentrations ranging from 6.5 to16μg/ml. The extracted CMLV DNA was proven suitable for virus-specific qualitative and, semi-quantitative PCR applications. Compared to spin-column and conventional viral DNA extraction techniques, the two-step extraction procedure saves money and time, and retains the potential for automation without compromising CMLV PCR sensitivity.

Beak necrosis in Hungarian partridges (Perdix perdix) associated with beak-bits and avian poxvirus infection

Proliferative growth, consistent with poxvirus infection, encapsulated plastic beak-bits and covered the dorsal portion of the upper beak and nares of adult male and female captive-raised Hungarian partridges. Three representative birds were submitted to the Wisconsin Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory for necropsy. Lesions in the necropsied birds extended through the nares, where the plastic bit ends are designed to rest. The lesions also variably extended caudally into the oropharynx and cranially within the beak epithelium, and included palate deformity and beak necrosis. Poxvirus was diagnosed in all of the birds examined based on histopathology, electron microscopy, and polymerase chain reaction amplification and sequencing. This report is the first to describe avian pox lesions associated with the application of beak-bits and the resulting beak and oral pathology.

Human sewage identified as likely source of white pox disease of the threatened Caribbean elkhorn coral, Acropora palmata

Caribbean elkhorn coral, Acropora palmata, has been decimated in recent years, resulting in the listing of this species as threatened under the United States Endangered Species Act. A major contributing factor in the decline of this iconic species is white pox disease. In 2002, we identified the faecal enterobacterium, Serratia marcescens, as an etiological agent for white pox. During outbreaks in 2003 a unique strain of S. marcescens was identified in both human sewage and white pox lesions. This strain (PDR60) was also identified from corallivorious snails (Coralliophila abbreviata), reef water, and two non-acroporid coral species, Siderastrea siderea and Solenastrea bournoni. Identification of PDR60 in sewage, diseased Acropora palmata and other reef invertebrates within a discrete time frame suggests a causal link between white pox and sewage contamination on reefs and supports the conclusion that humans are a likely source of this disease.