Competitive Powerlifters Research Articles

The significance of ‘situated learning’ for doping in an elite sports community: an interview study of AAS-using powerlifters

The article investigates social learning of doping among elite athletes, based on qualitative interviews with 10 former competitive powerlifters, which were analyzed with Lave and Wenger’s learning theories. The constitution of the social context – the sports community – and specific situations were decisive for how the informants acted in relation to doping. The informants were situated in a powerlifting community where doping was common. Experienced lifters, central in the community, approached and encouraged the peripheral informants, and they gradually became more involved in the practice by doping activities, due to expectations, curiosity, in an endeavour for results, to be like the ‘big guy’s’, and to compete on a level playfield. They received help with supply and administration of doping substances in the interactions with the experienced lifters. To gain a central role in the community, and for identity formation, doping was a crucial and defining activity.

Self-Reported Prevalence, Magnitude, and Methods of Rapid Weight Loss in Male and Female Competitive Powerlifters.

Nolan, D, Lynch, AE, and Egan, B. Self-reported prevalence, magnitude, and methods of rapid weight loss in male and female competitive powerlifters. J Strength Cond Res 36(2): 405-410, 2022-Rapid weight loss (RWL) is common practice in weight category sports, but no empirical data exist documenting the weight-making practices of competitive strength athletes. This study investigated the self-reported prevalence, magnitude, and methods of RWL used by male and female powerlifters when preparing for competition. Competitive powerlifters (n = 321; M/F, 194/127) completed an anonymous online questionnaire previously validated for assessment of methods of RWL. Respondents were categorized by their federation's respective antidoping policy, weigh-in procedure, and degree of assistive equipment allowed, in addition to their use or not of RWL. Subgroup analyses were performed on the largest category of respondents (n = 200, M/F, 117/83; ≤2-hour weigh-in, drug-tested, "raw") based on sex, weight category, and competitive status. Prevalence of RWL was 85.8%, with an average RWL of 3.0 ± 1.9% body mass and an RWL score of 25.1 ± 7.4. Neither sex nor weight category influenced the RWL score, but in male athletes, a lower RWL score (22.7 ± 6.3) was reported in athletes in the lowest tertile of the Wilks score (p = 0.015). Frequencies of "always use" were reported as 54.0% for fluid restriction and 49.0% for water loading. Coaches (37.5%) and online resources (35.0%) were "very influential" on RWL practices in these athletes, while doctors (85.5%) and dieticians (63.0%) were reported to be "not influential." The prevalence of RWL is high in competitive powerlifting, and the methods used are akin to other weight category sports, but the reported RWL scores are lower than reported in combat sports with longer recovery periods after weigh-in.

The influence of compressive gear on maximal load lifted in competitive powerlifting.

The competition in powerlifting has been divided into two divisions, with gear equipment (EQ) and without gear equipment (RAW). When competing in the EQ division, additional supportive gear can be worn by the athletes, while in the RAW division such gear is not allowed. The aim of the study was to compare the results of the RAW and EQ powerlifting divisions based on the results of world championships and current world records. One-hundred and twenty powerlifters (63 men, 57 women) were included to the analysis. Post hoc analysis for the results of men’s world championships indicated significantly higher results of the barbell squat (SQ; p < 0.001; ES = 1.31), bench press (BP; p < 0.001; ES = 1.27) and deadlift (DL; p < 0.001; ES = 0.37) for EQ compared to the RAW division. Post hoc analysis for the results of women’s world championships indicated significantly higher results of the SQ (p < 0.001; ES = 1.31), BP (p < 0.001; ES = 1.13) and DL (p < 0.001; ES = 0.71) for the EQ compared to the RAW division. Post hoc analysis for men’s world record indicated significantly higher results in the SQ (p < 0.001; ES = 1.32) and BP (p < 0.001; ES = 1.24) for the EQ compared to the RAW division. Furthermore, there were no significant differences in the results of world records in the DL (p = 0.901; ES = 0.26) between the EQ and RAW divisions. Post hoc analysis for women’s world records indicated significantly higher results in the SQ (p < 0.001; ES = 1.22) and BP (p < 0.001; ES = 1.99) for the EQ compared to RAW division. The main finding of the study was that supportive gear increases maximal load lifted during powerlifting competition.

Variability of lumbar spinal alignment among power- and weightlifters during the deadlift and barbell back squat

ABSTRACT The aims of the study were to evaluate the relative and absolute variability of upper (T11-L2) and lower (L2-S2) lumbar spinal alignment in power- and weightlifters during the deadlift and back squat exercises, and to compare this alignment between the two lifting groups. Twenty-four competitive powerlifters (n = 14) and weightlifters (n = 10) performed three repetitions of the deadlift and the back squat exercises using a load equivalent to 70% of their respective one-repetition maximum. The main outcome measures were the three-dimensional lumbar spinal alignment for start position, minimum and maximum angle of their spinal alignment, and range of motion measured using inertial measurement units. Relative intra-trial reliability was calculated using the two-way random model intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) and absolute reliability with minimal detectable change (MDC). The ICC ranged between 0.69 and 0.99 and the MDC between 1°-8° for the deadlift. Corresponding figures for the squat were 0.78–0.99 and 1°-6°. In all participants during both exercises, spinal adjustments were made in both thoracolumbar and lumbopelvic areas in all three dimensions. In conclusion, when performing three repetitions of the deadlift and the squat, lumbar spinal alignment of the lifters did not change much between repetitions and did not differ significantly between power- and weightlifters.

Caffeine Supplementation for Powerlifting Competitions: An Evidence-Based Approach.

In this paper, we review the effects of caffeine on muscle strength and provide suggestions for caffeine supplementation in powerlifting competitions. The currently available studies indicate that caffeine ingestion may enhance strength in two powerlifting competition events, the squat and the bench press. For the deadlift, the same might be expected even though studies directly using this event are lacking. Optimal doses of caffeine are likely in the range from 2 to 6 mg·kg−1, and are highly individual. When using caffeine-containing capsules, 60 minutes pre-exercise seems to be a good timing of caffeine consumption. For other sources such as caffeinated chewing gum, a shorter period (5 to 10 min) from consumption to the start of the exercise seems to be effective. For shorter duration powerlifting competitions (e.g., 2 hours), one pre-competition dose of caffeine could be sufficient for acute performance-enhancing effects that might be maintained across all three events. For longer duration competitions (with longer rest periods between one repetition maximum attempts), there might be a benefit to repeated dosing with caffeine; for example, ingesting smaller doses of caffeine before each attempt or event. During training, powerlifters may consider ingesting caffeine only before the training sessions with the highest intensity. This approach might eliminate the attenuation of caffeine’s effects associated with chronic caffeine ingestion and would help in maximizing performance benefits from acute caffeine ingestion at the competition. Nonetheless, withdrawal from caffeine (e.g., no caffeine intake seven days before competition) does not seem necessary and may have some indirect negative effects.

Oxidative Stress Parameters and Its Associations With Arterial Stiffness in Competitive Powerlifting Athletes After 12-Week Supervised Strength Training.

Jürgenson, J, Serg, M, Kampus, P, Kals, J, Zagura, M, Viru, M, Zilmer, K, Zilmer, M, Eha, J, and Unt, E. Oxidative stress parameters and its associations with arterial stiffness in competitive powerlifting athletes after 12-week supervised strength training. J Strength Cond Res 33(7): 1816-1822, 2019-Available studies have not revealed a clear understanding of the impact of intensive strength training on arterial stiffness and oxidative stress (OxS) parameters, which may have a significant impact on further cardiovascular health of an athlete. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of a 12-week supervised strength training program (SSTP) on oxidative stress indices and its relationship with arterial stiffness in powerlifting athletes. A total of 19 men (28 ± 6 years) exercised for 12 weeks (4 days per week with intensity 60-90% assessed from 1 repetition maximum, 90-120 minutes per session). Oxidative stress parameters and arterial stiffness (SphygmoCor 7.1) were measured before and after SSTP. The study results showed that total peroxide concentration increased and total antioxidant capacity decreased significantly after SSTP. There were no significant changes in carotid-femoral pulse wave velocity (cfPWV) or in the augmentation index. Correlation analysis revealed that the magnitude of the increase of cfPWV was significantly related to the increase of OxS. The current study demonstrated that a 12-week SSTP in powerlifting athletes produced significant changes in OxS indices, which were positively related to increased aortic stiffness. This novel finding may have significant implications about the effect of OxS on cardiovascular health after high-intensity strength training. Furthermore, strength and conditioningcoaches may have to consider the long-term exercise-induced changes in OxS on an individual level, where increased OxS leads to impaired arterial stiffness and cardiovascular health.

Effects of the Safety Squat Bar on Trunk and Lower-Body Mechanics During a Back Squat.

Hecker, KA, Carlson, LA, and Lawrence, MA. Effects of the safety squat bar on trunk and lower-body mechanics during a back squat. J Strength Cond Res 33(7S): S45-S51, 2019-The purpose of this study was to determine whether the safety squat bar (SSB) alters the mechanics and muscle activity of a back squat compared with a standard barbell (ST). Motion and muscle activation of the trunk and lower extremity were measured while 12 competitive powerlifters (8 males, 4 females, age 31.5 ± 6.3 years, body mass 88.1 ± 20.7 kg, competitive lifting experience 3.3 ± 2.8 years) squatted 3 sets of 5 repetitions at 75% of their 3 repetition maximum (3RM). Mean muscle activity and peak joint flexion angles were measured for the trunk and one lower extremity. A repeated-measures analysis of variance (p = 0.05) revealed an 11.3% decrease in 3RM when using the SSB. When using the SSB, there was a decrease in trunk and hip flexion (7.3 and 5.7° respectively) and a 50.3% increase in lower trapezius activation. However, using the SSB decreased activation of the rectus abdominis (46.3%), medial hamstring (17.1%), lateral hamstring (15.1%), vastus lateralis (9.3%), and medial gastrocnemius (18.8%). Squatting with the SSB resulted in a more upright trunk angle, which places less stress on the lower back, a commonly injured area when squatting. Decreases in lower-extremity muscle activation are likely due to the decreased load used, suggesting that the SSB may not be as effective as a standard bar to increase lower-extremity strength. However, the increase in the lower trapezius with the lighter load suggests that midback musculature may be challenged more by the SSB than a standard barbell.

Workout-Life Balance: How Psychological Stress Affects Force Production in Competitive Powerlifters and Healthy Controls

Workout-Life Balance: How Psychological Stress Affects Force Production in Competitive Powerlifters and Healthy Controls

Factors Underlying Bench Press Performance in Elite Competitive Powerlifters.

Reya, M, Škarabot, J, Cvetičanin, B, and Šarabon, N. Factors underlying bench press performance in elite competitive powerlifters. J Strength Cond Res 35(8): 2179-2186, 2021-Previous investigations of 1 repetition maximum bench press (1RM BP) performance have been either descriptive or have explored a limited number of contributing variables. The purpose of this study was to investigate the interplay between structural, technical, and neuromuscular factors in relation to 1RM BP in competitive powerlifters. Thirteen national and international level male powerlifters (26 ± 9 years, 178 ± 6 cm, and 93.8 ± 9.9 kg) visited the laboratory twice. Anthropometric and ultrasound measures were taken on the first visit, whereas performance measures (voluntary activation level, isokinetic strength, and kinetic, kinematic, and electromyographic measurements during 1RM BP) were recorded on the second visit. Correlation and multiple regression were used to investigate the contribution of structural, technical, and neuromuscular variables to 1RM BP corrected for body mass using the Wilks coefficient. The highest degree of association was shown for structural (lean and bone mass, brachial index, arm circumference, and agonist cross-sectional area [CSA]; r = 0.58-0.74) followed by neuromuscular factors (elbow and shoulder flexion strength; r = 0.57-0.71), whereas technical factors did not correlate with 1RM BP performance (r ≤ 0.49). The multiple regression showed that lean body mass, brachial index, and isometric shoulder flexion torque predicted 59% of the common variance in 1RM BP. These data suggest that in a sample of elite competitive powerlifters, multiple factors contribute to 1RM BP with variables such as lean body mass, the agonist CSA, brachial index, and strength of the elbow and shoulder flexors being the greatest predictors of performance.

Validity and reliability of the WIMU® system to measure barbell velocity during the half-squat exercise

This study aimed at determining the reliability and concurrent validity of the WIMU® system when measuring barbell velocity during the half-squat exercise by comparing data with the gold standard. A total of 19 male competitive powerlifters performed an incremental loading test using the half-squat exercise. The mean velocity, mean propulsive velocity and maximum velocity of all repetitions were recorded through both WIMU and T-Force systems. As a measure of reliability, coefficient of variations ranged from 6%–17% and standard error of means ranged from 0.02–0.11 m/s, showing very close reliability of data from both devices. Validity, in terms of coefficient of correlations and pairwise comparisons, was also tested. Except for some relative loads, the Pearson correlation analysis revealed significant correlations between both devices for mean velocity, mean propulsive velocity and maximum velocity (r &gt; 0.6, p &lt; 0.05). The mean velocity, mean propulsive velocity and maximum velocity were underestimated for the WIMU system compared to T-Force data at some points of the load–velocity relationship. The linear regression models performed revealed a strong load–velocity relationship in the half-squat exercise for each individual using mean velocity, mean propulsive velocity and maximum velocity, regardless of the instrument used (R2 &gt; 0.77 in all cases). Bland–Altman plots revealed low systematic bias (≤0.06 m s−1) and random error (≤0.07 m s−1) for the mean velocity and mean propulsive velocity obtained from the WIMU system as compared to the T-Force, while the maximum velocity resulted in an underestimation by the WIMU system (–0.16 m s−1) as compared to the linear position transducer system. The results indicate that the WIMU system is a reliable tool for tracking barbell velocity in the half squat, but these data also reveal some limitations regarding its concurrent validity as compared to the gold standard, with velocity measures slightly underestimated in the tested conditions.

A Gravitational-Double Layer Extreme Learning Machine and its Application in Powerlifting Analysis

Powerlifting is a strength sport that is quite popular in the world. Powerlifters have their power levels varied at different ages and body weights, and their power levels are closely related to their performance. Therefore, studying the impact of age and weight on the performance of powerlifters is an important work. The traditional method relies mainly on artificial experience to judge the performance, and often does not get the desired results. In recent years, machine learning has developed rapidly, and applying machine learning in sports is a very interesting topic. This study is based on a new machine learning algorithm to construct a prediction model for the best performance of powerlifters. We propose a double-layer extreme learning machine based on affine transformation and two-layer extreme learning machine theory (AF-DELM). Then use a dynamic weight-gravitational search algorithm to improve the AF-DELM networks. The results show that the algorithm can better predict the performance and provide an effective predictive aid for the powerlifting competition.

Differences in the one-repetition maximum and load-velocity profile between the flat and arched bench press in competitive powerlifters

ABSTRACT This study aimed to compare the one-repetition maximum (1RM) and the velocity outcomes obtained against the same absolute and relative (%1RM) loads between the flat and arched bench press (BP) variants. Eleven competitive male powerlifters were evaluated in one session with the flat BP (natural lumbar arch and moderate scapular retraction) and in another session with the arched BP (pronounced lumbar arch and scapular retraction). An incremental loading test was used to determine the 1RM as well as the barbell’s velocity against the different external loads. The main findings revealed that the 1RM did not significantly differ between the flat (115.9 ± 17.9 kg) and arched (115.7 ± 18.4 kg) BP variants (p = 0.942, effect size = 0.01), while there were no significant differences between BP variants either for the velocity outcomes obtained against the individual loads nor for the velocities associated with each %1RM (p > 0.05). These results suggest that competitive powerlifters do not necessarily present their higher 1RM performance using the arched BP variant. Finally, both BP variants could be used interchangeably when using movement velocity for testing upper-body strength as well as for prescribing the load during velocity-based resistance training routines.

Repetitions in Reserve and Rate of Perceived Exertion Increase the Prediction Capabilities of the Load-Velocity Relationship.

Balsalobre-Fernández, C, Muñoz-López, M, Marchante, D, and García-Ramos, A. Repetitions in reserve and rate of perceived exertion increase the prediction capabilities of the load-velocity relationship. J Strength Cond Res 35(3): 724-730, 2021-This study aimed to (a) analyze the relationships between relative load (i.e., %1 repetition maximum; 1RM) and movement velocity, repetitions in reserve (RIR) and rate of perceived exertion (RPE) in competitive powerlifters and (b) examine whether a multiple linear regression model with the movement velocity, RIR, and RPE as predictor variables could improve the goodness of fit of the load-velocity relationship. Ten competitive powerlifters performed an incremental loading test (from 50 to 100% 1RM) on the full-squat, hip-thrust, and bench press exercises. Barbell velocity was measured using a linear position transducer, while RIR and RPE were registered immediately after each set. Velocity (r2: 0.747-0.887), RIR (r2: 0.857-0.928), and RPE (r2: 0.908-0.933) were moderately to highly related to relative load. A higher amount of variance of the relative load was explained when the RIR and RPE were added to velocity in a multiple regression model in comparison with the load-velocity relationship (r2: 0.924-0.947). Moreover, it was observed that, in all cases, individual load-velocity, load-RIR, and load-RPE relationships had higher r2 scores than the generalized load-velocity relationship. Incorporating the RIR and RPE as predictors of the relative load along with movement velocity into a multiple linear regression was shown to provide better estimations of the %1RM than using a linear load-velocity relationship.

Reduced Volume 'Daily Max' Training Compared to Higher Volume Periodized Training in Powerlifters Preparing for Competition-A Pilot Study.

The present study looked to examine reduced volume ‘daily max’ (near max loads) training compared to higher volume periodized training in powerlifters preparing for competition. Ten competitive powerlifters were split into 2 groups (MAX group and PER group) and participated in a 10-week training intervention either following a “daily max” training protocol or a traditional periodized training protocol while preparing for competition. All participants underwent 1RM testing for squat (SQ), bench press (BP) and deadlift (DL) prior to the 10-week intervention. The MAX group performed single sets of single repetitions using a load equating to an RPE rating of 9–9.5 while the PER group performed higher volume periodized training with loads ranging from 70%1RM up to 93%1RM as well as a taper at the final weeks of the training intervention. Both groups were tested after the 10-week training intervention at the Greek IPF-affiliate National Championships. In the PER group, powerlifting (PL) total increased for P1 and P3 by 2% and 6.5% respectively while P2 experienced no change. In the MAX group PL total increased for P1 and P2 by 4.8% and 4.2% respectively while it decreased by 0.5%, 3.4% and 5% for P3, P4 and P5 respectively. In the MAX group peri PL total increased for P1–4 by 3.6%, 4.2%, 4.5% and 1.8% respectively while it decreased by 1.2% for P5. The results of this pilot study show that single-set, single-rep, RPE based ‘daily max’ training may be a favorable strategy for some beginner-intermediate powerlifters preparing for competition while it may lead to performance decreases for others. Further, it suggests that performance may be comparable to traditional periodized training during shorter training cycles, though future work with larger samples is needed to further test this. Practically ‘daily max’ training may be useful for PL athletes looking to maintain strength during periods with limited training time available.

Comparison of Isolated Lumbar Extension Strength in Competitive and Noncompetitive Powerlifters, and Recreationally Trained Men.

Androulakis-Korakakis, P, Gentil, P, Fisher, JP, and Steele, J. Comparison of isolated lumbar extension strength in competitive and noncompetitive powerlifters, and recreationally trained men. J Strength Cond Res 35(3): 652-658, 2021-Low-back strength has been shown to significantly impact performance in a plethora of sports. Aside from its effect on sport performance, low-back strength is strongly associated with low-back pain. A sport that heavily involves the lower-back musculature is powerlifting. This study looked to compare isolated lumbar extension (ILEX) strength in competitive and noncompetitive powerlifters, and recreationally trained men. Thirteen competitive powerlifters (CPL group; 31.9 ± 7.6 years; 173.4 ± 5.5 cm; 91.75 ± 18.7 kg), 10 noncompetitive powerlifters (NCPL group; 24 ± 3.5 years; 179 ± 4.8 cm; 92.39 ± 15.73 kg), and 36 recreationally trained men (RECT group; 24.9 ± 6.5 years; 178.5 ± 5.2 cm; 81.6 ± 10.0 kg) were tested for ILEX. Isolated lumbar extension strength was measured at every 12° throughout subject's full range of motion (ROM) and expressed as the following: "strength index (SI)" calculated as the area under a torque curve from multiple angle testing, average torque produced across each joint angle (AVG), and maximum torque produced at a single angle (MAX). Deadlift and squat strength were measured using 1 repetition maximum for the competitive and noncompetitive powerlifters. The following powerlifting characteristics were recorded for the competitive and noncompetitive powerlifters: primary deadlift stance, primary squat bar position, use of belt, use of performance-enhancing drugs, and use of exercises to target the lower-back musculature. Significant between-group effects were found for subject characteristics (age, stature, body mass, and ROM). However, analysis of covariance with subject characteristics as covariates found no significant between-group effects for SI (p = 0.824), AVG (p = 0.757), or MAX (p = 0.572). In conclusion, this study suggests that powerlifting training likely has little impact on conditioning of the lumbar extensors.

Virtual Coaching for the High-Intensity Training of a Powerlifter Following Coronary Artery Bypass Grafting

A 55-year-old powerlifter in Tennessee learned about the sport-specific, high-intensity cardiac rehabilitation training available in Dallas, Texas, and contacted the staff by phone. He was recovering from quadruple coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) and had completed several weeks of traditional cardiac rehabilitation in his hometown, but the exercise program no longer met his needs. He wanted help in returning both to his normal training regimen and to powerlifting competition but was unable to attend the Dallas program in person. An exercise physiologist with the program devised a virtual coaching model in which the patient was sent a wrist blood pressure cuff for self-monitoring and was advised about exercises that would not harm his healing sternum, even as the weight loads were gradually increased. After 17 weeks of symptom-limited, high-intensity training that was complemented by phone and e-mail support, the patient was lifting heavier loads than he had before CABG. At a powerlifting competition 10 months after CABG, he placed first in his age group. This case report exemplifies the need for alternative approaches to the delivery of cardiac rehabilitation services.

Changes in steroid hormones during an international powerlifting competition

The purpose of this study was to assess changes in the steroid hormone levels of elite athletes during an international powerlifting competition. Baseline cortisol, DHEA and testosterone were determined in saliva samples in 19 (8 men, 11 women) junior and sub-junior athletes on the day before competition, and then on the competition day during the official weighing and in the hour after competition. Performance was determined by total output and the Wilks formula. No change in saliva steroid concentrations was observed between samples collected on the day before competition and the weighing samples. There was no gender effect on cortisol concentrations but saliva testosterone levels were always significantly higher in men than in women (p<0.01), as was end-competition DHEA (p<0.05). Cortisol and DHEA were significantly increased in male and female athletes after the competition (respectively, p<0.01 and p<0.05), whereas end-competition testosterone concentrations were only significantly increased in men (p<0.01). Significant relationships were demonstrated between performance and end-competition cortisol levels in women and end-competition testosterone levels in men. These data indicate that workouts during an international powerlifting competition produce a significant increase in adrenal steroid hormones in both genders, with an increase in male gonadal steroid hormone. Further studies are necessary to examine the changes in oestradiol and progesterone in women and their potential impact on performance during international powerlifting competition.

Satellite cell heterogeneity with respect to expression of MyoD, myogenin, Dlk1 and c-Met in human skeletal muscle: application to a cohort of power lifters and sedentary men

Human satellite cells (SCs) are heterogeneous with respect to markers for their identification in the niche between the muscle fibre plasma membrane and its basal lamina. We have previously shown that, in biopsies from highly competitive power lifters, power lifters with long-term use of anabolic steroids and a population of healthy sedentary men, antibodies against the neuronal cell adhesion molecule (NCAM) and the paired box transcription factor Pax7 together label 94% of the SCs, NCAM alone labels 4% and Pax7 alone labels 1%. In the present study, we have further studied these biopsies with four markers related to SC activation and differentiation. Our study unequivocally shows that staining for MyoD and myogenin are present in nuclei of SCs and of myoblasts and myotubes in areas of muscle fibre regeneration. Staining for c-Met was observed in a proportion of Pax7+ SCs. However, widespread labelling of the sarcolemma precluded the quantification of c-Met+/Pax7+ SCs and the use of c-Met as a reliable SC marker. Pax7+ SCs labelled by anti-Delta like1 (Dlk1) were present in all samples but in variable proportions, whereas muscle progenitor cells related to repair were Dlk1−. Staining for Dlk1 was also observed in Pax7− interstitial cells and in the cytoplasm of some small muscle fibres. Interestingly, the proportion of Dlk1+/Pax7+ SCs was significantly different between the groups of power lifters. Thus, our study confirms that human SCs show marked heterogeneity and this is discussed in terms of SC activation, myonuclei turnover, muscle fibre growth and muscle fibre damage and repair.

Cortisol, DHEA, and testosterone concentrations in saliva in response to an international powerlifting competition

The purpose of this study was to examine salivary cortisol, dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), and testosterone responses to the bench press in an international powerlifting competition and to determine whether these salivary hormone concentrations could be used to predict performance. Twenty-six elite athletes (13 females and 13 males) provided saliva samples during the official weighing-in and after the last attempt at the bench press, as well as at baseline on a non-competition day. Performance index was determined with the Wilks formula, which adjusts powerlifting scores according to body mass. Salivary cortisol concentrations were significantly increased in all subjects after the bench press (p < 0.01), whereas DHEA concentrations were significantly increased in women (p < 0.01) but not in men after the bench press. No significant change in testosterone concentrations was observed during the experiment in either men or women, which resulted in a marked decrease in the testosterone/cortisol ratio. The performance index showed no significant correlation with any of the hormone responses to competition. In conclusion, despite the increase in stress adrenocortical hormone responses to an international powerlifting competition, these hormone concentrations alone are not predictors of bench press performance in elite powerlifting athletes.

Can Absolute and Proportional Anthropometric Characteristics Distinguish Stronger and Weaker Powerlifters?

This study sought to compare the anthropometric profiles of 17 weaker and 17 stronger Australasian and Pacific powerlifters who had competed in a regional-, national-, or international-level powerlifting competition in New Zealand. Stronger lifters were defined as those having a Wilks score greater than 410, whereas those in the weaker group had a Wilks score less than 370. Each powerlifter was assessed for 37 anthropometric dimensions by International Society for the Advancement of Kinanthropometry (ISAK) level II and III accredited anthropometrists. Because all powerlifters were highly mesomorphic and possessed large girths and bone breadths, both in absolute terms and when expressed as Phantom-Z scores compared through the Phantom, relatively few significant anthropometric differences were observed. However, stronger lifters had significantly greater muscle mass and larger muscular girths in absolute terms as well as greater Brugsch Index (chest girth/height) and "Phantom"-normalized muscle mass, upper arm, chest, and forearm girths. In terms of the segment lengths and bone breadths, the only significant difference was that stronger lifters had a significantly shorter lower leg than weaker lifters. Because the majority of the significant differences were for muscle mass and muscular girths, it would appear likely that these differences contributed to the stronger lifters' superior performance. Powerlifters may therefore need to devote some of their training to the development of greater levels of muscular hypertrophy if they wish to continue to improve their performance. To better understand the anthropometric determinants of muscular strength, future research should recruit larger samples (particularly of elite lifters) and follow these subjects prospectively.