Poultry Skin Research Articles

Ultrasound-assisted extraction for green recovery of poultry skin collagen hydrolysates with antioxidant and antihypertensive activities

Ultrasound-assisted extraction for green recovery of poultry skin collagen hydrolysates with antioxidant and antihypertensive activities

Recent advances in rapid and reliable biosensors for detection of porcine gelatine

SummaryGelatine is obtained from the hydrolysis of collagen in bones, skin, fins, fish scales and insect bodies of cattle, pigs, camels, poultry, fish and insects. Consequently, the diversity and availability of gelatine sources, along with gelatine authentication, are concerns for those consuming gelatine products from religious, health and economic perspectives. Therefore, rapid and reliable protein‐ or DNA‐based detection methods have been developed for gelatine authentication. This review discusses and evaluates biosensor methods, comparing them with various analytical methods in terms of their popularity and precision. Additionally, the development of biosensor methods has been explored to identify a reference for a rapid, accurate, portable and simple method for gelatine detection with a low detection limit and high specificity.

Mitigating the attachment of Salmonella Infantis on isolated poultry skin with cetylpyridinium chloride.

To provide the poultry industry with effective mitigation strategies, the effects of cetylpyridinium chloride (CPC) on the reduction of Salmonella Infantis, hilA expression, and chicken skin microbiota were evaluated. Chicken breast skins (4×4 cm; N = 100, n = 10, k = 5) were inoculated with Salmonella (Typhimurium or Infantis) at 4°C (30min) to obtain 108 CFU/g attachment. Skins were shaken (30s), with remaining bacteria being considered firmly attached. Treatments were applied as 30s dips in 50 mL: no inocula-no-treatment control (NINTC), no treatment control (NTC), tap water (TW), TW+600 ppm PAA (PAA), or TW+0.5% CPC (CPC). Excess fluid was shaken off (30s). Samples were homogenized in nBPW (1 min). Samples were discarded. Salmonella was enumerated and Log10 transformed. Reverse transcriptase-qPCR (rt-qPCR) was performed targeting hilA gene and normalized using the 2-ΔΔCt method. Data were analyzed using one-way ANOVA in RStudio with means separated by Tukey's HSD (P≤0.05). Genomic DNA of rinsates was extracted, 16S rRNA gene (V4) was sequenced (MiSeq), and data analyzed in QIIME2 (P≤0.05 and Q≤0.05). CPC and PAA affected Salmonella levels differently with CPC being effective against S. Infantis compared to TW (P<0.05). Treatment with CPC on S. Infantis-infected skin altered the hilA expression compared to TW (P<0.05). When inoculated with S. Typhimurium, there was no difference between the microbiota diversity of skins treated with PAA and CPC; however, when inoculated with S. Infantis, there was a difference in the Shannon's Entropy and Jaccard Dissimilarity between the two treatments (P<0.05). Using ANCOM at the genus level, Brochothrix was significant (W = 118) among skin inoculated with S. Typhimurium. Among S. Infantis inoculated, Yersiniaceae, Enterobacterales, Lachnospiraceae CHKCI001, Clostridia vadinBB60 group, Leuconostoc, Campylobacter, and bacteria were significant (40<W>8). CPC and PAA-treated skins had lowest relative abundance of the genera. In conclusion, CPC mitigated Salmonella Infantis, altered hilA expression, and influenced the chicken skin microbiota.

Characterization of Extended Spectrum Cephalosporin-Resistant Escherichia coli Strains Isolated from Raw Poultry Carcasses in Catering Services in Northern Greece.

Antimicrobial resistance is considered a topic of utmost interest under the concept of "One Health", having severe implications in both human and veterinary medicine. Among the antibiotic-resistant bacteria, gram-negative bacteria, especially those belonging to the order of Enterobacterales (such as Escherichia coli), hold a prominent position in terms of both virulence and possessing/disseminating antimicrobial resistance (AMR) traits. The aim of this study was to examine the presence of extended-spectrum β-lactamase producing E. coli isolates in raw poultry carcasses collected from a university club. Five hundred raw poultry skin samples were collected from the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki (AUTh) club in Thessaloniki, Greece. A total of 64% of the samples were positive for the presence of extended-spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL)-producing E. coli. The isolates were further examined for their susceptibility to selected antibiotics by the disc diffusion method and were characterized as true ESBL, as producing class C cephalosporinases (AmpC) or "of unknown etiology" by the combination disc test. The 86 of the 120 isolates (71.67%) were classified as true ESBL, 24 (20.00%) as AmpC, and 10 (8.33%) as "of unknown etiology". The isolates were screened for the occurrence of β-lactamase genes (blaTEM, blaCTX-M, blaSHV, and blaOXA). Thirty-six isolates (32 ESBL- and 4 AmpC-phenotype) harbored both blaTEM and blaCTX-M genes, twenty-two isolates (among which 19 ESBL-phenotype and 2 AmpC-phenotype) harbored blaCTX-M only, whereas twenty-six (14 ESBL- and 12 AmpC-phenotype) isolates harbored blaTEM alone. No isolate harboring blaSHV or blaOXA was detected. The results demonstrate the existence of E. coli isolates producing extended-spectrum β-lactamases in poultry carcasses from Greece, pausing a risk for antibiotic resistance transfer to humans.

The application of adaptively evolved thermostable bacteriophage ΦYMFM0293 to control Salmonella spp. in poultry skin

Bacteriophages, bacterial viruses, are now being re-highlighted as one of the promising alternative antimicrobial agents to control bacterial pathogens in various fields, including the food industry. However, wild-type (WT) phages isolated from nature are vulnerable to external stresses such as heat, limiting the usability of phages in thermal processing. Here, we applied an adaptive laboratory evolution approach to improving the heat stability of newly isolated Salmonella-infecting lytic phage ΦYMFM0293 and examined its application in the poultry scalding process. After 15 cycles of exposure to sub-lethal temperature, the obtained adaptively evolved (AE) phages maintained approximately 3-log more infectious particles at 73 or 74 °C than the WT and non-heat-treated control phages. Missense mutations mainly concentrated in the genes related to the phage tail module were identified from the independently obtained heat-challenged phages, regardless of host Salmonella’s heat-shock protein chaperone induction. These results demonstrated the necessity and sufficiency of the phage exposures to heat for thermal adaptation and suggested the involvement of the phage tail in heat stability. No significant physiological or morphological changes except the mutually offsetting phage replication parameters were observed in the AE phages. Accordingly, hot water supplemented with the AE phages significantly reduced the number of artificially contaminated Salmonella cells on chicken and duck skin in the mimicked scalding process. The AE strategy used here could be applied to other WT phages to improve their usability as more feasible antimicrobials for food safety.

Kanatlı Deri ve Mekanik Olarak Eti Sıyrılmış Kemik (MKS) Artıklarından Kollajen/Jelatin Ekstraksiyonu

Collagen is a structural protein found naturally in high amounts in poultry skin and bones. Gelatin is obtained by a partial hydrolysis of collagen under controlled conditions. It is a pure protein with many functional and technological properties such as gelation, thickening, film-forming and emulsification. Besides skin and bones, mechanically deboned meat (MDM) residues are considered good sources of collagen as well. This study aimed to extract collagen and gelatin from poultry skin and MDM residues of neck, shinbone, breastbone, wingtip, shanks, upper/lower backbone and their mixture through pre-treatment (using with dilute alkali and acid), demineralization, degreasing and thermal extraction processes, and evaluate their properties comparatively. Based on Kjeldahl analysis, the protein content of poultry skin was about 15% and that of the MDM residues varied between 15-21% before the extraction process. The SDS-PAGE profiles of the extracted collagen in skin and MDM residues comprised γ, β, α, and sub-α chain protein units. Collagen solution of the upper backbone and mixed MDM residues had the highest protein content with 11.98 mg/mL and 11.33 mg/mL, respectively. The extraction yield of collagen and gelatin significantly differred (p˂0.05) within the range between 1.32 and 2.16%, and 1.03 and 1.89%, respectively. The viscosity of collagen/gelatin solutions decreased with an increase in shear rate and gelatin obtained from mix MDM residues indicated higher viscosity than that of skin. Results of this study showed successful recovery of collagen and gelatin from poultry processing by-products and residues, which could contribute to the production of high value-added alternative sources for various applications.

Determination of stability of cosmetic formulations incorporated with water-soluble elastin isolated from poultry

Elastin is a flexible fibre that promotes the skin’s elasticity and flexibility. It has mainly been used in cosmetic products as a conditioning agent in many premium skincare products available globally. The present study was aimed to assess the stability of moisturiser cream containing elastin powder extracted from poultry skin as a functionally active ingredient. The elastin powder was isolated by incorporating a non-enzymatic approach and then analysed for its purity and quality by using amino acid profiling. The high content of glycine, proline, and alanine indicates a high purity of elastin was successfully extracted. Besides, the extracted elastin was also having high solubility (>80%). Subsequently, a model moisturiser system containing poultry-based water-soluble elastin powder was developed and underwent series of microbiological testing and physicochemical observation at different intervals for a maximum of 12 weeks at room temperature (RT), 40 °C, and 50 °C. The stability study on the developed moisturisers showed that the creams are physically and chemically stable throughout the 12 weeks of storage with no dramatic changes in terms of its pH, viscosity, and colour at all temperatures. In conclusion, the newly formulated moisturiser cream exhibits many promising properties and attributes that could unlock new opportunities to develop an effective, healthy, cost-competitive, high-quality product for cosmetics and pharmaceuticals use.

Effect of Rendering Temperature on Collagen Content from the Poultry Skin

Effect of Rendering Temperature on Collagen Content from the Poultry Skin

Isolation, Purification and Characterization of Antioxidative Bioactive Elastin Peptides from Poultry Skin.

Muscle-based by-products are often undervalued although commonly reported having a high amount of natural bioactive peptides. In this study, elastin was isolated from the protein of broiler hen skin while its hydrolysate was prepared using Elastase. Assessment of antioxidative properties of elastin-based hydrolysate (EBH) was based on three different assays; 2,2-diphenyl-1-picryl-hydrazyl-hydrate (DPPH) radical, 2,2’-azino-bis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid) (ABTS) radical and metal chelating ability. The EBH was purified further using ultrafiltration, gel filtration and Reverse- Phase High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (RP-HPLC). The IC50 of ABTS radical activities for EBH were decreased as EBH further purified using ultrafiltration (EBH III; 0.66 mg/mL)>gel filtration (EB-II; 0.42 mg/mL)>RP-HPLC (EB-II4; 0.12 mg/mL). The sequential identification of the peptide was done by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ ionization time-of-flight/time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF/ TOF-MS) of the potent fractions obtained from RP-HPLC (EB-II4). The presence of hydrophobic amino acids (Val and Pro) in the peptide sequences could potentially contribute to the high antioxidant activity of EBH. The sequences GAHTGPRKPFKPR, GMPGFDVR and ADASVLPK were identified as antioxidant peptides. In conclusion, the antioxidative potential from poultry skin specifically from elastin is evident and can be explored to be used in many applications such as health and pharmaceutical purposes.

Amino-acid composition and balance of collagen containing raw materials

A prospective source of additional food protein in the meat industry is collagen-containing raw materials: pork skin, connective tissue obtained at meat trimming, collagen-containing by-products, etc., which can be used as part of proteinand-fat emulsions. Collagen emulsions have a wide range of functional properties: moisture and fat retention, foam and gelling abilities, emulsifying activity, active foam, emulsions and dispersions stabilizers, so they can be used as a technological additive in the meat industry. Therefore, the most important task in the process is the complete use of collagen-containing raw materials with the maximum implementation of its properties. The paper presents the results of studies on determining the amino acid composition and balance of collagen-containing raw materials: pork skin, beef tendons, lungs, rumen, beef lips and ears, pork ears, udder, spleen, omasum, skin, head, feet, caruncle, stomach and intestines of poultry. It was determined that collagen-containing raw material contains all the essential amino acids: isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine and cysteine, phenylalanine and tyrosine, threonine, valine with the amino acid count in the range of 17.1–185.0 %. At the same time, a more balanced amino acid composition in comparison with other types of collagen-containing raw materials is shown by: pork skin, udder, beef lips and trachea, chitterlings, omasum, rumen, lungs and spleen as evidenced by high values of amino acid score (up to 185 %), essential amino acid index (up to 1.1), utility factor of the amino acid composition (up to 0.84), as well as the approximate values of the comparable redundancy index (0.0007–0.0043). The research results confirm the prospectiveness of combining muscle and connective tissue proteins in recipes of meat products of high nutritional and biological value.

Synthesis of biodiesel from chicken’s skin waste by homogeneous transesterification

ABSTRACTPoultry skin waste is considered to be a promising source of biodiesel. However, this source presents an environmental threat as it is being discharged into landfills without any treatment. We studied the feasibility of biodiesel production from poultry skin waste. Two-step extraction of lipids from chicken’s skin was developed and gave 97.5% yield using the optimum time and temperature. Esterification was then optimised to remove free fatty acids (FFA) where the ideal parameters were 65 °C during 30min with a molar ratio of methanol to oil of (1:3) and 1% of H2SO4. The third step was the transesterification which was performed using 60 °C and 300–600 rpm agitation for 1 h, with 1% basic catalyst and 1:3 (molar ratio) of methanol to oil. The biodiesel (FAME), was characterised using gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (GC-MS) followed by chemical and physical analyses such as iodine number, acid number, flash point and cetane number. The total conversion was obtained using above conditions and most of the studied proprieties of produced biodiesel meet the EN14214 standard. This is an extremely encouraging result, offering a good source of biodiesel by valuing poultry skin waste.

English

English

Control of Salmonella Enteritidis on food contact surfaces with bacteriophage PVP-SE2

Salmonella is one of the worldwide leading foodborne pathogens responsible for illnesses and hospitalizations, and its capacity to form biofilms is one of its many virulence factors. This work evaluated (bacterio)phage control of adhered and biofilm cells of Salmonella Enteritidis on three different substrata at refrigerated and room temperatures, and also a preventive approach in poultry skin. PVP-SE2 phage was efficient in reducing both 24- and 48-h old Salmonella biofilms from polystyrene and stainless steel causing 2 to 5 log CFU cm−2 reductions with a higher killing efficiency at room temperature. PVP-SE2 phage application on poultry skins reduced levels of Salmonella. Freezing phage-pretreated poultry skin samples had no influence on the viability of phage PVP-SE2 and their in vitro contamination with S. Enteritidis provided evidence that phages prevented their further growth. Although not all conditions favor phage treatment, this study endorses their use to prevent and control foodborne pathogen colonization of surfaces.

Behavioral patterns that increase or decrease risk of abdominal adiposity in adults.

The identification of risk or protective behavioral patterns associated with abdominal adiposity may aid in prevention and health promotion measures. To identify and to associate behavioral patterns of risk and protection to abdominal adiposity in adults in a Brazilian city. A population-based cross-sectional study was carried out in Viçosa, Brazil, with 1,226 adults of both sexes. Information on social-demographic characteristics, food intake, level of physical activity, alcohol consumption and smoking were collected by using a questionnaire. The anthropometric measurement of waist circumference and anthropometric indices waist/hip ratio and waist/height ratio were indicators of abdominal adiposity. To identify behavioral patterns, exploratory factor analysis was applied for the variables considered as risk or protective factors. The association of the identified patterns with abdominal adiposity was estimated by multiple linear regression, adjusted for gender, age and social economical class. Two patterns were obtained, "healthy" and "risk". The "healthy" pattern, comprised of the clustering of the variables food consumption, fruits, fresh fruit juices, raw and cooked vegetables and the appropriate level of physical activity, was negatively associated with abdominal adiposity identified by waist circumference (p = 0.048), waist/hip (p = 0.013) and waist/height (p = 0.018) indices. The "risk" pattern, composed of smoking, alcohol beverage abuse and habit of consuming visible fat in fat-rich red meat or poultry skin, was positively associated with abdominal adiposity identified by waist circumference (p = 0.002) and waist/hip (p = 0.007) and waist/height indices (p = 0.006). Two behavioral patterns were identified, a risk pattern and a protective pattern for abdominal adiposity in the assessed population. The study shows the importance of conducting clustering of multiple risk and protective factors to better explain the health conditions of a group.

A global database of polybrominated diphenyl ether flame retardant congeners in foods and supplements

Polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) flame retardants contaminate the food supply yet health effects are uncertain. A global PBDE database was developed to improve diet and disease risk assessments. Congener-specific data from 2002 to 2015 were extracted from 86 articles into a source database representing 32 countries. Geometric mean PBDE concentrations for foods and supplements were derived for 11 congeners individually and combined, and used to calculate means for 27 dietary groups (pg/g ww). Dark or oily fish had the highest data availability, followed by shellfish, eggs, dairy products and dairy fats. Data were less available for white or lean fish, red meat, poultry meat, processed meats, fish oil supplements; 17 groups had very limited data. At the group level, mean ∑11PBDE was extremely high for fish oil supplements (13,862 pg/g) and high for most aquatic groups (462–837 pg/g), poultry liver, poultry fat (1045–1860 pg/g). Moderate groups included white or lean fish, poultry meat, poultry skin, eggs, baked products, red meat fat, red meat liver (115–414 pg/g). Dairy and plant groups had low PBDE concentrations. ∑11PBDE variability was high within most aquatic groups. This database supports assessment of dietary PBDE in multiple jurisdictions and identifies important sources for dietary tool inclusion and analyses.

Food Grade Pimenta Leaf Essential Oil Reduces the Attachment of Salmonella enterica Heidelberg (2011 Ground Turkey Outbreak Isolate) on to Turkey Skin.

Salmonella attached to the poultry skin is a major source of carcass contamination during processing. Once attached to the poultry skin, it is difficult to detach and inactivate Salmonella by commonly used antimicrobial agents since the pathogen is entrapped deeply in the feather follicles and the crevices on the skin. Essential oils could be natural, safe, and effective alternatives to synthetic antimicrobial agents during commercial and organic processing setup. The present study evaluated the efficacy of pimenta (Pimenta officinalis Lindl.) leaf essential oil (PEO), and its nanoemulsion in reducing Salmonella Heidelberg attachment on to turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) skin during simulated scalding (65°C) and chilling (4°C) steps in poultry processing. A multidrug resistant S. Heidelberg isolate from the 2011 ground turkey outbreak in the United States was used in the study. Results showed that PEO and the nanoemulsion resulted in significant reduction of S. Heidelberg attachment on turkey skin. Turkey skin samples treated with 1.0% PEO for 5 min resulted in >2 log10 CFU/sq. inch reduction of S. Heidelberg at 65 and 4°C, respectively (n = 6; P < 0.05). Similarly, skin samples treated with 1.0% pimenta nanoemulsion (PNE) for 5 min resulted in 1.5- and 1.8- log10 CFU/sq. inch reduction of S. Heidelberg at 65 and 4°C, respectively (n = 6; P < 0.05). In addition, PEO and PNE were effective in reducing S. Heidelberg on skin during short-term storage at 4 and 10°C (temperature abuse) (n = 6; P < 0.05). No Salmonella was detected in the dipping solution containing 0.5 or 1.0% PEO or PNE, whereas a substantial population of the pathogen survived in the control dipping solution. The results were validated using scanning electron -, and confocal - microscopy techniques. PEO or PNE could be utilized as an effective antimicrobial agent to reduce S. Heidelberg attachment to turkey skin during poultry processing.

Somatic embryogenesis from leaf explants of Tagetes erecta L.

Tagetes erecta is an asteraceous plant of industrial, ornamental and medicinal importance; its inflorescences have been used as a pigment source for food coloring, mainly for poultry skin and eggs. Nevertheless, there are few reports on plant regeneration or micropropagation, because unsuccesfull results in the plant's reaction to the growth regulators, developing embryogenesis on Tagetes erecta. In this study, somatic embryogenesis was induced and plantlets of Tagetes erecta were regenerated. For induction of globular structures MS medium supplemented with 2,4-D (4.5 µM) and BAP (8.8 µM) was used; globular structures were transferred to MS medium with 45 g l-1 sucrose until the embryos maturation. Transmission electron microscopy showed characteristic subcellular structures of embryogenic callus. Somatic embryos were transferred to MS medium without plant growth regulators and whole plantlets were obtained. In vitro plants were successfully transplanted into a mixture of peat moss and vermiculite (1 : 1 v/v) under greenhouse conditions. In this study, somatic embryogenesis and plant regeneration system from foliar explants were established, an important requirement for performing genetic transformation events on Tagetes erecta.

Trans-Esterification of Poultry Skin and Fat to Produce Biodiesel

Chicken skin and its fat are sources of solid waste that are usually not utilized and add solid pollution. This research work deals with the production of useful biodiesel from utilizing the waste chicken (fat and its skins). Waste chicken fat and its skins (sourced from local shops of Hyderabad, Sindh, Pakistan) were extracted and trans-estrification was made. The product of trans-estrification was fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) commonly known as biodiesel. Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) was used as catalyst and glycerol was obtained as a by-product. The FAME produced was tested for six parameters namely calorific value, cloud point, pour point, flash point, density and viscosity when compared to ASTM E2515-11 standard values. The results of this experiment showed that the calorific value, cloud point, pour point, flash point, density and viscosity values of FAME produced from chicken skin and its fat were close to that of petroleum derived diesel.

Recovery of associated and internalized Salmonella in broiler skin by stomaching and grinding

The objective of this study was to evaluate the recovery of associated and internalized Salmonella by stomaching and grinding broiler skin during exposure at 4 °C and at room temperature, using a two-strain green fluorescent protein (GFP) labeled cocktail of Salmonella Enteritidis. In the first experiment, broiler skins were immediately taken from eviscerated carcasses and exposed to a Salmonella cocktail containing ∼1 × 109 CFU/ml for 0.5, 6, 12, 24, and 48 h at 4 °C. After each exposure, two 1-min stomachings and subsequent grinding of the stomached skin were conducted to quantify loosely associated (from two stomachings) and tightly associated (from grinding) Salmonella on the skin, respectively. Broiler skins exposed to Salmonella for 24 and 48 h were also examined by confocal microscopy before and after the two stomachings. The 1st and 2nd stomachings recovered an average of 71 and 17% of the Salmonella population, respectively, with an additional 12% of the cells recovered after subsequent grinding, regardless of incubation time. Based on the confocal images, most Salmonella were removed after two stomachings, however a few cells further penetrated from 9 to 29 μm into the skin. In the second experiment, broiler skins were immersed in the same two-strain Salmonella cocktail (∼1 × 108 cells/ml) and dip-inoculated for 2 min with/without stomaching at room temperature. Based on the confocal images, Salmonella penetrated the flat skin surfaces and crevices up to 10 and 68 μm without stomaching, respectively, and up to 62 and 132 μm with stomaching. The presence of free-floating Salmonella cells in the skin crevices indicates that entrapped water is important for bacterial translocation in poultry skin. These findings indicated that extent of observable Salmonella association, penetration, and subsequent recovery from poultry skin is related to both surface topography of poultry skin and method of sample processing.

Update of model to predict sensible heat loss in broilers

The present study was conducted to adjust and adapt some parameters of the model of production and heat loss by convection and conduction, so as to predict the actual feed intake (aFI) of broilers reared in sheds. The re-parameterised models were the sensible heat loss by convection from surface (HS) and by conduction (HC) in birds. The HS model was re-parameterised to calculate the heat loss of poultry reared in sheds and the parameters of thermal resistance of feathers (RF) and skin (RS) of poultry were inserted. The HC model was re-parameterised for birds in sheds and the RF, RS and the thermal resistance of the litter (R) were inserted. The re-parameterised HS model was HS = [A × QV × (TB – TA)]/[(TB – 17) × (RF + RS)], where TA is the air temperature, QV is the volume factor, TB is the surface temperature of the bird (°C) and A was estimated to be 11.94 watts (W). The values found in the model ranged from 0.75 W for birds with 100 g BW subjected to 33°C TA, 50% HU, 0.1 m/s wind speed (V) and 12.53 W for birds with 4100 g subjected to 33°C TA, 80% HU and 0.1 m/s V. The values found in the re-parameterised HC model (HC = [(TB – TC) × k × AR × QA]/[L × (RF + RS + R)], where K is the thermal conductivity of the litter, AR is the contact area of bird with the litter and QA is the area factor, and L is the litter height) ranging from 0.017 W to chickens with 100 g BW in comfortable conditions and 0.17 W for birds with 4100 g in thermal discomfort condition. The present study showed that the re-parameterisation of heat-loss equations is more accurate to predict the heat flux in broilers under different environmental conditions.