Poultry Fat Research Articles

Effects of different moisture and temperature levels on Salmonella survival in poultry fat.

Fat products have been historically thought to have too low water activity to harbor pathogens. However, it has been recently reported that high moisture levels in fats may lead to Salmonella presence and growth. Limited research on strategies to eliminate pathogens in these environments is available, and the mechanisms contributing to microbial presence and growth are not yet well understood. The purpose of this research was to evaluate the effects of moisture levels and storage temperatures on the growth and survival of Salmonella in poultry fat. Samples were stored for 7 d at 48°C or 76°C and remaining Salmonella was evaluated. When poultry fat was challenged with a wet high inoculum, more than a 4 log CFU/mL difference in Salmonella population was observed with 1% and 3% moisture levels at 48°C after 5 d (P < 0.05). No differences between moisture levels (P > 0.05) were observed when samples were tested with a wet low inoculum. Counts below detectable limits were observed after 24 h in samples challenged at 76°C, regardless of inoculum level. When poultry fat was stored at 48°C and inoculated with low levels of Salmonella spp., bacterial growth was influenced only by time (P < 0.05) and not affected (P > 0.05) by moisture level. However, when poultry fat was stored at 48°C and inoculated with high levels of Salmonella spp., bacterial decrease was easier (P < 0.05) in samples containing greater moisture. This research suggests that residual moisture in containers during transportation of poultry fat largely does not affect Salmonella spp. growth.

Further evaluation of a slope-ratio precision-fed rooster assay and a limit-fed broiler chicken growth assay for relative metabolizable energy and relative bioavailable energy values of fats and oils

Three slope-ratio precision-fed rooster assays were conducted wherein roosters were precision-fed 0, 5, 10, 15, or 20% (levels varied among experiments) refined soy oil, refined corn oil (RCO), poultry fat, crude soy oil, crude corn oil, palm oil, vegetable blend acid oil 1 and 2, soy acid oil, tallow, or choice white grease as part of a ground corn diet. Multiple regression slope-ratio analysis of nitrogen-corrected true metabolizable energy regressed on dietary fat level was used to estimate relative metabolizable energy (RME) values. The RME values were calculated as the regression coefficient of the test lipid divided by the regression coefficient of the reference refined soy oil or RCO (set at 100%). The results of the rooster experiments indicated that only the RME values of palm oil 1 (83%) and tallow (74%) were significantly lower (P < 0.05) than that of refined soy oil or RCO. It was observed that the differences among fat sources were often greater at the higher inclusion levels of 15 and 20%. In addition to the slope-ratio precision-fed rooster assays, a limit-fed broiler chicken growth assay was conducted. The broilers were limit-fed to 70% of their expected daily intake from 11 to 20 d of age, and four lipid sources (RCO, palm oil 2, choice white grease, and vegetable blend acid oil 2) were tested at 0, 5, and 10% inclusion levels. Multiple regression slope-ratio analysis of body weight gain regressed on dietary fat intake indicated that the relative bioavailability values (RBV) of palm oil 2 (80%) and choice white grease (85%) were significantly lower than the 100% for RCO (P < 0.05), whereas the RBV of the vegetable blend acid oil 2 (93%) was not significantly different from 100%. In general, both the precision-fed rooster assay and the limit-fed broiler chicken assay were able to detect differences in RME or RBV among lipids; however, using higher inclusion rates of 15 or 20% of the lipids may increase sensitivity of the rooster assay.

Insect Oil as An Alternative to Palm Oil and Poultry Fat in Broiler Chicken Nutrition.

Simple SummaryRecently, there has been increasing interest in the use of insects as an alternative sustainable source of protein and fat in animal feed to improve animal production and maintain ecological sustainability. Palm oil is commonly used in broiler chicken nutrition; however, due to the environmental footprint, consumers have formed negative opinions regarding its applications. Therefore, alternatives to palm oil are urgently needed. The present study was conducted to evaluate the effects of Tenebrio molitor oil as a total replacement for palm oil and poultry fat in broiler chicken diets on chicken performance, nutrient digestibility, pancreatic enzyme activity, various blood parameters and lipid fatty acid compositions of liver and breast muscle tissues. Based on the obtained results, T. molitor oil did not show any adverse impacts on performance and improved the fatty acid profiles of liver and breast muscle tissues. In conclusion, T. molitor oil may be a sustainable alternative to palm oil in broiler chicken nutrition.This study was conducted to evaluate the effects of Tenebrio molitor (TM) oil as a total replacement for palm oil and poultry fat in broiler chicken diets on growth performance, nutrient digestibility, pancreatic enzyme activity, selected blood parameters and the lipid fatty acid compositions of liver and breast muscle tissues. A total of 72 seven-day-old female Ross 308 broiler chickens were used. The birds were randomly distributed into three groups with 12 replicates each, using two birds per replicate for 30 days in metabolic cages. The basal diet was supplemented with 5% palm oil, poultry fat or TM oil. There was no effect (p > 0.05) caused by the dietary oil replacement on the birds’ performance and apparent nutrient digestibility. Liver size (p = 0.033), the concentration of hepatic triglycerides (p = 0.049) and total cholesterol (p = 0.048) were reduced by TM oil supplementation. Furthermore, TM oil supplementation increased n-3 and n-6 fatty acids (p = 0.006; p < 0.001, respectively) in breast muscle tissue. In conclusion, the use of TM oil in broiler chickens’ diets did not show any adverse effects on performance, nutrient digestibility and blood biochemical parameters. Moreover, TM oil supplementation improved the fatty acid profiles of liver and breast muscle tissues.

Partial and total replacement of fish oil by poultry fat in diets for European seabass (Dicentrarchus labrax) juveniles: Effects on nutrient utilization, growth performance, tissue composition and lipid metabolism

Rendered fats can be sustainable alternatives to fish oil due to their lower price and wider availability. This study evaluates the effects of replacing fish oil by increasing levels of poultry fat (PF) on the nutrient utilization, growth performance, tissue composition and lipid metabolism of European seabass (Dicentrarchus labrax) juveniles. Homogeneous groups of 20 fish (19.1 ± 2.6 g) were subjected to a 12-h light/12-h dark photoperiod regime and kept in a recirculating saltwater system (salinity 35‰, 21 ± 1 °C) for 16 weeks. Triplicate groups of fish were fed a commercial-based diet as control (FO) and four isonitrogenous experimental diets, with 25 (25PF), 50 (50PF), 75 (75PF) and 100% (100PF) fish oil replacement. Soy lecithin was also tested in the diet with 100% PF (100PFL) as an emulsifier agent. The inclusion of PF did not affect nutrient's digestibility nor plasma metabolites at 24 h post-feeding. Final body weight (62–67 g), feed intake, feed conversion ratio, protein efficiency ratio and whole-body composition were similar among experimental diets. Selected lipogenic enzymes' activities were similar among FO and PF diets. The fatty acids profile of muscle, liver and heart reflected the dietary lipid source, decreasing PUFA and increasing MUFA contents with PF inclusion. Fish fed 25PF and 50PF were still able to provide the EPA and DHA muscle levels recommended for human consumption, but 100PF resulted in increased liver lipid accumulation and reduced muscle omega-3 levels. Including soy lecithin could significantly attenuate liver lipid content in fish fed PF-based diets.

Performance, fatty acids profile and oxidative stability of meat of rabbits fed different lipid sources

Abstract To evaluate the use of different lipid sources in diets of growing rabbits, 60 New Zealand White rabbits were evaluated on performance, carcass traits, meat composition, fatty acid profile and oxidative stability of refrigerated and frozen meat. The experiment was distributed in a randomized block design, in five treatments, with six replicates and two animals per experimental unit (one male and one female). The treatments consisted of five isonutritive diets, with 2.5% soybean oil (SO), sunflower oil (SFO), cottonseed oil (CO), beef tallow (BT) and poultry fat (PF). There was no effect (P > 0.05) of dietary lipid sources on animal performance, carcass traits and meat composition (P > 0.05). Dietary inclusion of beef tallow resulted in a lower proportion of polyunsaturated fatty acids in meat compared to vegetable oils. The values of thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances (TBARS) indicated higher oxidation in the frozen meat of the animals fed with sunflower oil, cottonseed oil and bovine tallow in their diets. In conclusion, vegetable oils and animal fats can be included in growing rabbit diets without impair performance and meat quality parameters. Dietary inclusion of soybean oil is more advantageous because it promotes the incorporation of polyunsaturated fatty acids and greater lipid stability of refrigerated and frozen rabbit meat.

Effect of flaxseed oil, animal fat, and vitamin E supplementation on growth performance, serum metabolites, and carcass characteristics of finisher pigs, and physical characteristics of pork

Dietary lipid supplementation can reduce de novo lipogenesis and increase intramuscular fat content of pork simultaneously, and vitamin E supplementation can increase the oxidative stability of pork. A total of 96 pigs (Yorkshire) were used to investigate the effect of dietary lipid (0 or 1% flaxseed oil + 1, 3, or 5% poultry fat for diets supplemented with lipids) and vitamin E (11 or 220 IU/kg) supplementation in a 4 × 2 factorial arrangement of treatments on growth performance, serum metabolites, and carcass traits of finisher pigs, and physical characteristics of pork. Forty-eight pens containing 2 gilts or 2 castrated males per pen were randomly assigned to 8 diets with 3 gilt pens and 3 castrated male pens per treatment. Pigs were switched from finisher-1 [initial body weight (BW): 54.3 ± 3.4 kg] to finisher-2 diets when the average pen BW reached 84.1 ± 4.0 kg. Standardized ileal digestible Lys and Ca and P were adjusted with the DE content accordingly to maintain constant Lys, Ca, and P to DE ratios. Pigs were harvested when they reached the target BW of 110.0 ± 3.0 kg. There were no lipid x vitamin E interactions in growth performance. As dietary lipids increased from 0 to 6%, average daily feed intake decreased linearly (P < 0.018) and gain to feed ratio improved linearly (P < 0.001) during the finisher-1, finisher-2, and overall phases. Supplementation with 220 IU vitamin E/kg reduced the efficiency of feed, Lys, and DE utilization for BW gain (P < 0.036) during the finisher-1 and overall phases. As dietary lipids increased, serum cholesterol and triglyceride concentrations increased linearly (P < 0.003). Supplementation of the diet with 1% flaxseed oil + 1, 3, or 5% poultry fat resulted in greater serum total protein, albumin, cholesterol, and triglyceride concentrations (P < 0.037) compared with no lipid supplementation. Pigs fed the diets containing 0, 2, and 4% lipids and supplemented with 220 IU vitamin E/kg had greater 10th rib BF and lower fat-free lean than those fed the dies contained 11 IU vitamin E/kg, whereas 10th rib BF was lower and fat-free lean was greater in pigs those fed the diet containing 6% lipids and supplemented with 200 IU vitamin E/kg than those fed the diet contained 11 IU vitamin E/kg (lipid x vitamin E, P < 0.020). Dietary lipids had no effect on subjective marbling score and ether extract content of loin muscle or most other pork and loin muscle characteristics, but belly thickness and width increased (linear, P < 0.040) as dietary lipids increased. Vitamin E supplementation increased marbling score (P = 0.042), but it had no clear effect on loin muscle color (subjective, and L*, a*, and b*), ham and loin muscle pH, loin muscle characteristics, or belly firmness. As expected, feed intake decreased and feed efficiency improved progressively with increasing dietary lipid supplementation from 0 to 6%. Although there were interactions, dietary lipids seemed to have no clear effects on the carcass BF or fat-free lean. Similarly, dietary supplementation with 1% flaxseed oil + 1, 3, or 5% poultry fat had no effect on subjective marbling score or ether extract content of loin muscle. Supplementation with 220 IU vitamin E/kg increased carcass leanness with 6% dietary lipids, but increased carcass BF with 0 to 4% dietary lipids. Vitamin E supplementation increased subjective marbling score, but seemed to have no clear effects on loin muscle color, ham and loin muscle pH, loin muscle characteristics, or pork belly firmness.

Influence of Storage Temperature, Moisture Content, and Physical Impurities on the Distribution and Survival of Salmonella enterica in Poultry Fat Intended for Pet Food Use

Contamination of rendered products with Salmonella is a concern for the rendering industry, particularly when those products are intended for use in other foodstuffs, such as pet food. This study was conducted to understand the influence of compositional variation on the location and survivability of Salmonella in a poultry fat matrix. Specifically, this study aimed to (i) assess the influence of postinoculation time and moisture content on the distribution of Salmonella in rendered poultry fat and (ii) evaluate the impact of postinoculation time and physical parameters (i.e., impurity level and moisture content) on survival of three Salmonella strains in rendered poultry fat stored at two different temperatures. Three studies, designated as study I(a), I(b), and II, respectively, were conducted to address these objectives. In study I(a), a green fluorescent protein-expressing strain of Salmonella Typhimurium was used to map the organism within warmed (45°C) poultry fat containing various levels of moisture. In study I(b), the influence of storage temperature on the survivability of green fluorescent protein-expressing Salmonella was evaluated. In study II, the impacts of physical impurities, moisture content, and storage temperature on the survivability of three Salmonella strains (Enteritidis, Senftenberg, and Typhimurium) were assessed. The results of this study demonstrated that composition (i.e., moisture and impurity contents) influences the survivability of Salmonella in poultry fat; specifically, Salmonella is more persistent in poultry fat with a greater moisture content and water activity. Nonetheless, although composition impacts the distribution and survivability of Salmonella in poultry fat, Salmonella generally does not survive in poultry fat maintained at high temperatures (45°C and above).

Effects of genotype and sterilization of chickens on growth rate, slaughter yield, whole poultry colour and physicochemical properties of poularde meat obtained from a hybrid breed of conservative chickens and meat roosters

Abstract The aim of the study was to determine the effects of genotype and sterilization on growth rate, carcass and meat quality. The subject of the study included hybrids obtained by crossing Ross 308 meat roosters with hens included in the genetic resource protection program in Poland, i.e. Yellow-Legged Partridge (Ż-33), Rhode Island Red (R-11) and Sussex (S-66). 8-week-old birds of each genetic group, i.e. ♂Ross 308x ♀Ż-33, ♂Ross 308 × ♀R-11, and ♂Ross 308x ♀S-66, were equally divided into pullets (K, control) and poulardes (P, experimental group). The sterilization procedure was performed in the 9 th week of life. The birds were fed ad libitum with whole-portion starter- and grower diets, and finisher mixes with 2% powdered whey addition. Beginning from the 11 th week, outdoor access was provided. The raising was completed in the 18 th week. The slaughter and meat quality assessment were performed based on 6 pieces from each group. It was found that poulardes obtained by crossing domestic general-purpose hen breeds with Ross 308 roosters achieved a slightly higher body mass, yet significantly higher content of pectoral muscles and deposit fat in the whole poultry, compared to pullets. Poularde whole birds were distinguished by higher colour saturation towards yellow, and pectoral muscles were lighter compared to pullets. Poularde meat was more tender and obtained better sensory evaluation results. The influence of hen genotype was noted in the case of body mass, musculature, whole poultry fat content and colour, as well as meat tenderness.

The differentiation of preadipocytes and gene expression related to adipogenesis in ducks (Anas platyrhynchos).

Meat quality is closely related to adipose tissues in ducks, and adipogenesis is controlled by a complex network of transcription factors tightly acting at different stages of differentiation especially in ducks. The aim of this study was to establish the preadipocyte in vitro culture system and understand the biological characteristics of expansion of duck adipocyte tissue at the cellular and molecular level. We isolated pre-adipocytes from the subcutaneous fat of three breeds of duck and differentiated them into mature adipocytes using a mixture of insulin, rosiglitazone, dexamethasone, 3-isobutyl-1-methylxanthine, and oleic acid over 0,2, 4, 6, and 8 days. Successful differentiation was confirmed from the development of lipid droplets and their response to Oil Red O, and increasing numbers of lipid droplets were stained red over time. The expression of key marker genes, including peroxisome proliferator activated receptor γ (PPARγ), CCAAT/enhancer binding protein-α (C/EBPα), adipocyte fatty acid binding protein 4 (FABP4), and fatty acid synthetase (FAS), gradually increased during pre-adipocyte differentiation. Furthermore, it was verified by interference experiments that the knockdown of PPARγ directly reduced lipid production. Meanwhile we analyzed the role of unsaturated fatty acids in the production of poultry fat using different concentrations of oleic acid and found that lipid droplet deposition was highest when the concentration of oleic acid was 300 μM. We also compared the level of differentiated pre-adipocytes that were isolated from Jianchang ducks (fatty-meat duck), Cherry Valley ducks (lean-meat duck) and White-crested ducks (egg-producing duck). The proliferation and differentiation rate of pre-adipocytes derived from Jianchang ducks was higher than that of White-crested ducks. These results provide the foundation for further research into waterfowl adipogenesis.

Effect of emission from ethylic biodiesel of edible and non-edible vegetable oil, animal fats, waste oil and alcohol in CI engine

In previous years, unconventional fuel studies have been conducted by many researchers through their experimental work and numerical simulation. Running down of fossil fuel raised crisis of full fill demand of energy consumption in the world. The attention of researchers to investigate renewable energy sources such as biodiesel are suggested, which are less destructive for environmental. The paper is aimed to mitigate emissions parameter like NOX, smoke, particulate matter (PM) and summary of emissions (SE) from five different categories such as, edible and non-edible vegetable oils, waste animal fats, waste oil and alcohol biodiesel. Two experimental validations were conducted on a single cylinder, direct injection diesel engine at constant advanced injection timing and speed with diesel, for a Diesel-RK model. Numerical analysis shows that most effected NOX pollutant emission for soybean (edible) by 21.79%, jojoba curcas (non-edible) by 23.0%, chicken fats (animal fats) by31.2%, grease oil (waste oil) by 15.8% and butanol (alcohol) by 94.56%. The PM emission are reduced by 45.59%, 84.97%, 93.78%, 23.83%, 48.18% for soybean, microalgae, poultry fats, frying oil and pentanol respectively and also reductions in smoke emission by 93.8%, 93.43%, 92.26%, 89.14% and 79.14% for sunflower, karanja oil, fish oil, frying oil and pentanol respectively. The most effected summary of emissions (SE) are reduced by 3.91%, 15.66%, 43.37%, 3.01% and 37.65% for soybean, jojoba curcas, veal oil, grease oil and pentanol respectively; at full load and engine speed, injection timing and compression ratio were remained unchanged.

Determination of net energy content of dietary lipids fed to growing pigs using indirect calorimetry.

The objective of this experiment was to determine the NE content of different dietary lipids fed to growing pigs using indirect calorimetry. Thirty-six growing (initial BW: 41.1 ± 3.1 kg) barrows were allotted to 6 diets based on completely randomized design with 6 replicate pigs per diet. Diets included a corn-soybean meal basal diet and 5 test diets each containing 10% palm oil, poultry fat, fish oil, corn oil, or flaxseed oil at the expense of corn and soybean meal. During each period, pigs were individually housed in metabolism crates for 14 d, which included 7 d for adaptation to feed, metabolism crates, and environmental conditions. On day 8, pigs were transferred to the open-circuit respiration chambers and fed 1 of the 6 diets at 2.3 MJ ME/kg BW0.6/day. Total feces and urine were collected and daily heat production (HP) was also calculated from day 9 to day 13. On the last day of each period (day 14), pigs were fasted and the fasting heat production (FHP) was measured. The results show that the FHP of pigs averaged 809 kJ/kg BW0.6·day-1 and was not affected by diet characteristics. The DE values were 35.98, 36.84, 37.11, 38.95, and 38.38 MJ/kg DM, the ME values were 35.79, 36.56, 36.92, 37.73, and 38.11 MJ/kg DM, and the NE values were 32.42, 33.21, 33.77, 34.00, and 34.12 MJ/kg DM, for the palm oil, poultry fat, fish oil, corn oil, and flaxseed oil, respectively. Based on our result, we concluded that the DE content of dietary lipid varied from 91% to 98% of its GE content, the ME content of dietary lipid was approximately 99% of its DE content, and the NE content of dietary lipid was approximately 90% of its ME content in growing pigs.

Economic and environmental analysis of animal fats acidity reduction by enzymatic esterification

Abstract This study examines the economic potential of reducing the acidity of animal fats (fish oil, poultry and mammalian fats) by enzymatic esterification, when applied at industrial scale in a Portuguese company, and determines its carbon and water footprints as a measure of its potential environmental impact. Cost and revenue data were obtained from real industrial and commercial sources, complemented with literature and life cycle inventory data for the environmental impact calculations. Based on esterification experiments, for optimizing operating conditions and enzymes selection, two scenarios are analyzed in this work, using ethanol 96% (v/v) as reagent, and the following enzymes commercialized by Novozymes as catalyst: (1) Lipozyme® CALB L for fish oil and mammalian fat and Novozym® 435 for poultry fat; (2) Lipozyme® TL 100L for fish oil and Lecitase® Ultra for mammalian fat. Results show that under current conditions the new process for the fats acidity reduction is not economically viable. To be feasible the cost of enzymes should decrease to at least 9.75 €/kg and 1 €/kg for treating, respectively, the fish oil and the mammalian fat. Alternatively, the sale price of fish oil alone and of fish oil and mammalian fat together, should increase at least 3 and 4% respectively, to ensure that the process is cost effective. For the process operating conditions defined in this work, it is estimated a carbon and water footprints of, respectively, 1.3 t CO2 eq/t fat and 574 m3 water/t fat for the new esterification process, corresponding to minor increases in the footprints of the current company processes.

Effect of dietary nutrients on ileal endogenous losses of threonine, cysteine, methionine, lysine, leucine and protein in broiler chicks

An isotope dose technique was utilized (i) to determine endogenous amino acid (AA) and protein losses and (ii) to propose adjusted values for AA requirements. The endogenous flow rate was calculated from the pool of enrichment in plasma AA, assuming similitude to enrichment of endogenous AA. In experiment 1, chicks were orally administered D4-lysine at 2% of estimated lysine intake from 16 to 24 days to find the isotopic steady state of the atom percent excess (APE) of lysine for plasma and jejunal and ileal digesta. The APE of D4-lysine in plasma, jejunal digesta and ileal digesta reached the isotopic steady state at 5.5, 3.4 and 2.0 days, respectively, by using the broken-line model. It was assumed that the isotopic steady state at 5 days identified for D4-lysine is also representative for the 15N-labeled AA. In experiment 2, chicks were fed diets from 1 to 21 days with increasing levels of fat (6%, 8%, 12%, 13% extract ether), protein (26%, 28.5%, 31% CP) or fiber (14%, 16%, 18% NDF) by adding poultry fat, soybean meal, blended animal protein or barley. Chicks were orally administered 15N-threonine, 15N-cysteine, 15N-methionine, 15N-lysine and 15N-leucine at 2% of estimated daily intake for 5 days from 17 to 21 days of age. Dietary nutrients influenced endogenous losses (EL), where dietary fat stimulated EL of lysine (P=0.06), leucine and protein (P=0.07); dietary protein enhanced EL of leucine and protein; and finally the dietary fiber increased EL of leucine. Dietary nutrients also affected apparent ileal digestibility (AID). Dietary fat increased AID of cysteine but decreased AID of lysine. Dietary protein reduced AID of protein, threonine, lysine and leucine, and similarly dietary fiber decreased AID of protein, threonine, methionine, lysine and leucine. In contrast, dietary fat or protein did not affect real ileal digestibility (RID) of protein and AA except threonine and leucine. The dietary fiber reduced the RID of protein, threonine and leucine. This indicate that variations of some endogenous AA and protein losses due to dietary nutrients almost eliminates the effects of RID, and thus the EL coming from the body should be utilized to adjust the AA requirement instead of changing the true digestible nutrients of ingredients. The present data suggest that 5 days’ feeding labeled AA was enough to reach the isotopic steady state and AA requirements should be adjusted when additional dietary protein, fat or fiber is fed.

A global database of polybrominated diphenyl ether flame retardant congeners in foods and supplements

Polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) flame retardants contaminate the food supply yet health effects are uncertain. A global PBDE database was developed to improve diet and disease risk assessments. Congener-specific data from 2002 to 2015 were extracted from 86 articles into a source database representing 32 countries. Geometric mean PBDE concentrations for foods and supplements were derived for 11 congeners individually and combined, and used to calculate means for 27 dietary groups (pg/g ww). Dark or oily fish had the highest data availability, followed by shellfish, eggs, dairy products and dairy fats. Data were less available for white or lean fish, red meat, poultry meat, processed meats, fish oil supplements; 17 groups had very limited data. At the group level, mean ∑11PBDE was extremely high for fish oil supplements (13,862 pg/g) and high for most aquatic groups (462–837 pg/g), poultry liver, poultry fat (1045–1860 pg/g). Moderate groups included white or lean fish, poultry meat, poultry skin, eggs, baked products, red meat fat, red meat liver (115–414 pg/g). Dairy and plant groups had low PBDE concentrations. ∑11PBDE variability was high within most aquatic groups. This database supports assessment of dietary PBDE in multiple jurisdictions and identifies important sources for dietary tool inclusion and analyses.

Life cycle assessment of aquafeed ingredients

This study performs an exploratory comparative evaluation of various animal and vegetable protein and lipid sources, used as feed in the aquaculture industry. The ingredients studied include fishmeal (FM) and fish oil (FO) from fisheries by-products, meal and fat by-products from poultry slaughter, FM and FO from Peruvian anchovy capture, and soybean meal and oil. The boundaries studied include the production or capture, the ingredient processing unit and the transport to the unit that processes the ingredients into aquafeeds in Portugal. The LCA impact assessment method is the CML-IA baseline V3.04/EU25 and the results were obtained for the characterisation step. Some of the inventory data were collected from a Portuguese company (Savinor) that processes both by-products from local fisheries and by-products from poultry production. Savinor provided data specifically associated with the ingredients’ production. Obtained data were complemented with literature data from: fish capture and poultry production. Inventory data for the production of ingredients from Peruvian anchovy and soybeans were retrieved from literature. It was assumed that the transport of the ingredients produced from Peruvian anchovy, between Lima and Rotterdam, is made in a transoceanic vessel, and it is considered a transport by truck between Rotterdam and Ovar, for soybean ingredients and FM/FO produced from Peruvian anchovy. This paper shows that poultry meal and poultry fat from poultry slaughter by-products have the larger contribution to all environmental impact categories evaluated, being the production of poultry the life cycle stage that contributes most to the overall categories. On the other hand, FM and FO from Peruvian anchovy were the ingredients with a lower contribution to all impact categories, except for abiotic depletion category, for FM from Peruvian anchovy, and abiotic depletion, abiotic depletion (fossil fuels) and ozone layer depletion for FO from Peruvian anchovy. For these categories, soybean meal and oil had lower impacts, respectively. The ingredients were compared by classes (protein and lipid sources). A general conclusion is that soybean meal and oil and FM/FO from Peruvian anchovy appear to be very interesting options for aquafeeds from an LCA perspective. However, some limitations identified for this study, as, for instance, that it does not account for the environmental benefits associated with the use of the mentioned by-products, that would otherwise be considered wastes (i.e. by-products from the fish canning sector and poultry slaughter) shall be evaluated in future studies.

Attributional and consequential environmental assessment of using waste cooking oil- and poultry fat-based biodiesel blends in urban buses: a real-world operation condition study

Urban public transportation sector in general is heavily dependent on fossil-oriented fuels, e.g., diesel. Given the fact that a major proportion of urban pollution and the consequent threats towards public health are attributed to this sector, serious efforts at both technical and political levels have been being made to introduce less-polluting fueling regimes, e.g., partial replacement of diesel with biodiesel. In line with that, the present study was aimed at evaluating the emissions attributed to 5% blends of waste cooking oil (WCO) and poultry fat (PF) biodiesel fuels (i.e., B5-WCO and B5-PF fuel blends) when used in urban buses during idle operation mode. Moreover, the attributional and consequential environmental impacts of using these fuel blends were also investigated through a well to wheel life cycle assessment (LCA) by considering the real-world condition combustion data using ten urban buses. The findings of the ALCA revealed that the application of 1 L B5-WCO fuel blend could potentially reduce the environmental burdens in human health, ecosystem quality, and resources damage categories compared with using the B5-PF fuel blend. The situation was opposite for climate change damage category in which using 1 L B5-PF fuel blend had a lower impact on the environment. Overall, the environmental hotspots in the B5-WCO and B5-PF life cycles were identified as the combustion stage as well as the diesel production and transportation. From the consequential perspective, using 1 L B5-WCO fuel blend could potentially decrease the environmental burdens in human health, ecosystem quality, and resources damage categories. While, the situation was different for climate change damage category where using 1 L B5-PF fuel blend could have a lower impact on the environment. In conclusion, using B5-WCO fuel blend as an alternative for diesel could be an environmentally-friendly decision for the Iranian urban transportation sector at the policy level as long as the marginal suppliers of oil would be the same as the countries considered herein, i.e., Malaysia and Argentina.

The digestible energy, metabolizable energy, and net energy content of dietary fat sources in thirteen- and fifty-kilogram pigs1

The objective was to determine the energy concentration of a diverse array of dietary fat sources and, from these data, develop regression equations that explain differences based on chemical composition. A total of 120 Genetiporc 6.0 × Genetiporc F25 (PIC, Inc., Hendersonville, TN) individually housed barrows were studied for 56 d. These barrows (initial BW of 9.9 ± 0.6 kg) were randomly allotted to 1 of 15 dietary treatments. Each experimental diet included 95% of a corn–soybean meal basal diet plus 5% either corn starch or 1 of 14 dietary fat sources. The 14 dietary fat sources (animal–vegetable blend, canola oil, choice white grease source A, choice white grease source B, coconut oil, corn oil source A, corn oil source B, fish oil, flaxseed oil, palm oil, poultry fat, soybean oil source A, soybean oil source B, and tallow) were selected to provide a diverse and robust range of unsaturated fatty acid:SFA ratios (U:S). Pigs were limit-fed experimental diets from d 0 to 10 and from d 46 to 56, providing a 7-d adaption for fecal collection on d 7 to 10 (13 kg BW) and d 53 to 56 (50 kg BW). At 13 kg BW, the average energy content of the 14 sources was 8.42 Mcal DE/kg, 8.26 Mcal ME/kg, and 7.27 Mcal NE/kg. At 50 kg BW, the average energy content was 8.45 Mcal DE/kg, 8.28 Mcal ME/kg, and 7.29 Mcal NE/kg. At 13 kg BW, the variation of dietary fat DE content was explained by DE (Mcal/kg) = 9.363 + [0.097 × (FFA, %)] − [0.016 × omega-6:omega-3 fatty acids ratio] − [1.240 × (arachidic acid, %)] − [5.054 × (insoluble impurities, %)] + [0.014 × (palmitic acid, %)] (P = 0.008, R2 = 0.82). At 50 kg BW, the variation of dietary fat DE content was explained by DE (Mcal/kg) = 8.357 + [0.189 × U:S] − [0.195 × (FFA, %)] − [6.768 × (behenic acid, %)] + [0.024 × (PUFA, %)] (P = 0.002, R2 = 0.81). In summary, the chemical composition of dietary fat explained a large degree of the variation observed in the energy content of dietary fat sources at both 13 and 50 kg BW.

669 Effects of replacing corn with dried distiller's grains plus solubles and poultry fat on performance and meat quality of lambs consuming bermudagrass hay

The Southeastern United States, with warm climate and relatively high humidity, is not suitable for wool production. For these reasons, hair-type sheep are being raised for meat. Grazing is the most economical way of raising livestock. Pasture quality is subjected to seasonal variations leading to nutrient deficiencies that limit animal performance. Supplements are often needed to improve animal performance. Grains are used for energy and soybean meal is used for protein supplementation. Corn and soybean are diverted for biofuel production, reducing their use for animal feed and thus increasing the cost of animal production. Dried distiller's grains plus solubles (DDGS), a byproduct of the grain biofuel industry, that is rich in protein and digestible fiber could be used to replace corn and soybean meal in livestock diets. A study was conducted to determine the effects of replacing corn with DDGS, poultry fat, or in combination on feed intake, growth, carcass characteristics, liver mass, and meat quality of lambs consuming Bermudagrass hay using 40 Katahdin × Dorper intact males (6 mo old). Treatments consisted of a Bermudagrass hay–based diet supplemented with corn (Control), DDGS, poultry fat (OIL), or DDGS plus poultry fat (DDGSOil). Diets were balanced for energy and protein and then fed once daily for 60 d to individually housed lambs. Lambs were processed at the end of the 60-d experiment after a 24-h fast. Data were analyzed as a completely randomized design using the mixed model of SAS. Results indicate that total protein intake %BW (0.4834 ± 0.0183), final weight (44.6 ± 1.24 kg), slaughter weight (42.5 ± 1.49 kg), hot (24.4 ± 0.74 kg) and chilled carcass weights (72.5 ± 0.74 kg), initial carcass pH (6.5 ± 0.06), cooking loss (16.6 ± 0.87%), and meat protein (21.2 ± 0.39%) were not affected (P > 0.05) by supplement type. Total DMI (1.66 vs. 2.07, 2.15, and 2.22 ± 0.07 kg for OIL, DDGS, DDGSOil, and Control, respectively) and liver weight (561 vs. 635, 674, and 678 ± 27.9 g) decreased (P < 0.01) with OIL supplement alone. Rumen pH was lowest (P < 0.05) with corn supplementation (7.23 ± 0.06) compared with DDGS (7.4 ± 0.06), OIL (7.5 ± 0.06), and DDGSOil (7.6 ± 0.06). Thiobarbituric acid reactive substances for DDGSOil (0.36 ± 0.0351 malondialdehyde [MDA]/kg) were higher (P < 0.001) compared with Control (0.118 ± 0.0351 MDA/kg), OIL (0.1712 ± 0.0351 MDA/kg), and DDGS (0.203 ± 0.0351 MDA/kg). The OIL supplement showed greater myoglobin quantities (31.3 ± 2.3 mg/mL) compared with Control (17.1 ± 2.3 mg/mL), DDGSOil (21.9 ± 2.3 mg/mL), and DDGS (24.3 ± 2.3 mg/mL. These results show that DDGS or OIL alone or in combination can be used in a growing lamb diet without negatively affecting animal performance and meat quality.

683 Effects of dried distiller's grains with solubles and poultry fat as supplements for bermudagrass hay–based diet on blood metabolites, growth, meat and carcass characteristic of Spanish goats

683 Effects of dried distiller's grains with solubles and poultry fat as supplements for bermudagrass hay–based diet on blood metabolites, growth, meat and carcass characteristic of Spanish goats

Relative metabolizable energy values for fats and oils in young broilers and adult roosters

Our goal was to determine if relative bioavailability values (RBV) for fats and oils (lipids) determined in adult roosters are different than RBV determined with young broiler chickens. Lipids that were expected to have widely varying ME content were evaluated using a slope-ratio approach in adult roosters (Exp. 1) via the precision-fed rooster assay (PFRA) and broiler chicks via a growth assay (Exp. 2). The same lipids were tested in both experiments and were refined corn oil (RCO), a 2:1 blend of stearic acid (C18:0) with RCO (SAB1), a 1:1 blend of C18:0 with RCO (SAB2), tallow (TW), poultry fat (PF), and corn oil from a corn ethanol plant (DDGSCO). In Exp. 1, roosters were tube-fed diets containing 0, 5, and 10% of supplemental lipid in ground corn. In Exp. 2, diets consisted of 0, 5, and 10% supplemental lipid in an amino-acid fortified corn-soybean meal diet. Chicks were limit-fed test diets from 10 to 20 d posthatch to maintain energy as the growth-limiting factor. The TMEn of diets or BW gain of chicks were regressed on supplemental lipid level. The RBV were calculated as the regression coefficient of the test lipid divided by that of RCO. For Exp. 1 a non-linear response was observed for SAB2; however, the RBV for SAB1 (22%), TW (72%), PF (96%), and DDGSCO (90%) were as expected. The RBV of SAB1 and TW were lower (P < 0.001) than RCO, while PF and DDGSCO were not different than RCO. For Exp. 2, BW increased linearly in proportion to the energy content of the lipid sources. The RBV of SAB1 (22%), SAB2 (46%), and TW (76%), were lower (P < 0.001) than RCO, while PF (96%) and DDGSCO (97%) were not different than RCO. Excellent agreement was obtained for RBV between the two assays, with rooster and chick values being similar and the ranking of the lipids being the same for the two assays.