Poultry Eggshell Research Articles

Hybrid bio-fiber/bio-ceramic composite materials: Mechanical performance, thermal stability, and morphological analysis

Abstract Hybrid composite materials are becoming more desirable for various industrial applications to enhance sustainability and develop better environmentally friendly green products. This work aims to enhance the synergy of both bio-ceramic eggshell materials and date palm leaflet (DPL) fillers to integrate their advantages in an optimized hybridization manner to enhance their significance in producing novel biomaterials with improved desired mechanical, thermal, and morphological characteristics. Different weight percentages of hybrid green reinforcement (poultry eggshells and DPLs) were utilized in various hybridization ratios (3:7, 5:5, 7:3), (15:5, 10:10, 5:15), and (20:10, 15:15, 10:20) to fabricate 10, 20, and 30 wt% novel biomaterials. The regularly chopped DPLs were immersed in various concentrations of sodium hydroxide at different soaking times to optimize and improve their bonding with the polypropylene (PP) matrix. The mechanical, thermal, and morphological properties of the fabricated hybrid composites were investigated. The results have revealed that certain hybridization ratios could improve the tensile and flexural modulus by up to 26 and 11%, respectively. According to the thermogravimetric analysis and its derivatives, hybridization was also found to have an excellent influence on the thermal stability of the PP matrix. Regarding morphological micrographs utilizing scanning electron microscopy, DPLs exhibited good bonding, whereas eggshell fillers depicted different behaviors of bonding depending on their surface topologies. It was also found that hybridization with higher eggshells had better effects on flexural strength than date palms, regardless of their weight percentages. The 30 wt% hybridization case was found to be capable of improving the modulus of elasticity of composites to 838 MPa and the flexural modulus to 735 MPa, which are suitable for various structural applications and green products.

Development of novel environmental proficient hybrid composites based on marble dust and poultry’s eggshell

Poultry eggshell and marble dust were added to a mixture that was then reinforced with glass fibres and epoxy resin, and the resulting material was studied for its effect. The samples were created utilizing the hand Lay-up method, chopped glass fibre (6 wt%), and powdered marble dust as the matrix material (2, 4, 6, and 8 wt%). The tensile, flexural, and impact characteristics of specimens reinforced with marble dust, poultry eggshell powder, glass fibre, and epoxy resins are evaluated. Chicken eggshell powder and marble dust both had mean particle sizes of 14.3 and 0.7 to 1.4 µm, respectively, when measured by a particle size analyzer. The maximum tensile strength of 212.64 and 191.46 MPa were noticed in 6 wt% of fiber/filler combinations. The tensile and impact test outcomes displayed that the modulus of elasticity and impact strength values are, increased with the addition 6 wt% of fiber and 8 wt% of fillers, the maximum modulus of elasticity and impact strength values are found in the range of 7.78 GPa, 7.16 GPa, 7.51 kJ/m2 and 7.17 kJ/m2 for poultry’s eggshell, marble dust particles correspondingly. Conversely the percentage of elongation was decreased with respect to the increased manner of both filler materials. The maximum elongation percentage of 3.67 was observed in controlled samples (94 wt% of Epoxy + 6 wt% chopped glass fiber). In terms of flexural characteristics, the maximum flexural strength and flexural modulus for 6 wt% of fibre and 8 wt% of marble dust powder and poultry's eggshell particles, respectively, were estimated to be 369.51 MPa, 261.62 MPa, 15.83 GPa, and 14.68 GPa.

DNA methylome and transcriptome identified Key genes and pathways involved in Speckled Eggshell formation in aged laying hens

BackgroundThe quality of poultry eggshells is closely related to the profitability of egg production. Eggshell speckles reflect an important quality trait that influences egg appearance and customer preference. However, the mechanism of speckle formation remains poorly understood. In this study, we systematically compared serum immune and antioxidant indices of hens laying speckled and normal eggs. Transcriptome and methylome analyses were used to elucidate the mechanism of eggshell speckle formation.ResultsThe results showed that seven differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified between the normal and speckle groups. Gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA) revealed that the expressed genes were mainly enriched in the calcium signaling pathway, focal adhesion, and MAPK signaling pathway. Additionally, 282 differentially methylated genes (DMGs) were detected, of which 15 genes were associated with aging, including ARNTL, CAV1, and GCLC. Pathway analysis showed that the DMGs were associated with T cell-mediated immunity, response to oxidative stress, and cellular response to DNA damage stimulus. Integrative analysis of transcriptome and DNA methylation data identified BFSP2 as the only overlapping gene, which was expressed at low levels and hypomethylated in the speckle group.ConclusionsOverall, these results indicate that aging- and immune-related genes and pathways play a crucial role in the formation of speckled eggshells, providing useful information for improving eggshell quality.

Development of reusable composite eggshell-moringa leaf catalyst for biodiesel production

A reusable heterogeneous composite catalyst was prepared from mixtures of poultry eggshells and moringa leaves for the production of biodiesel (BD). The raw materials were mixed using a micro ball mill for 4 h and then calcinated at a temperature of 800 °C for 3 h. The developed catalyst was used to promote the transesterification reaction of soybean oil and methanol to produce BD. The X-ray diffraction results revealed the presence of predominantly CaO after activation at 800 °C. Meanwhile, the individual raw materials showed the presence of alkaline metal oxides such as CaO for the eggshell residue and Ca(OH)2, MgO and CaO for the moringa leaves. The catalyst has a surface area of 5.3 m2 g−1 and appreciably high basicity of 4.95 mmol/g, which tailored the transesterification reaction. Under the best reaction conditions of 2 wt% catalyst loading, 12:1 methanol to soybean oil molar ratio and a reaction temperature of 65 °C, 94.3% of fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) yield was achieved in 78 min. The heterogeneous catalyst can be reused for 9 consecutive cycles with a slight decrease in activity due to leaching. The biodiesel produced meets the international quality standards of ASTM D-6751 and EN 14214. In conclusion, a combination of agro-waste sources could promote stability in the reaction medium and effectively catalyze the BD production.

Chemical properties of the coffee grounds and poultry eggshells mixture in terms of soil improver

Spent coffee grounds (SCG) as well as chicken (CES) or duck eggshells (DES) left over from the artificial hatching technology are proposed as potential soil improver and/or organic-mineral fertiliser components. Therefore, it seems interesting and necessary to evaluate the chemical composition of these wastes and their mixtures in terms of their possible use for that purpose. The study was conducted under the incubation experiment conditions using a mixture of SCG and eggshells (10:1 ratio). Macronutrients, i.e. C, N, S, were determined by the catalytic combustion method, while P, K, Mg, Ca, Na by atomic spectrometry. It was found that SCG were rich in C, N, P, and K, while eggshells in Ca, Mg, Na, and S. However, CES compared to DES were richer in deacidifying components (i.e. Ca, Mg, K). At the same time, the content of macronutrients in eggshells decreased gradually along with the embryo development. For this reason, the mixture of SCG and shells of unembryonated chicken eggs (CES I) had the best chemical and usable proprieties. To conclude, the chemical properties of the mixtures of spent coffee grounds and eggshells indicate their possible application in soil bioengineering.

Metabonomics reveals the main small molecules differences between green and white egg shells in ducks

The eggshell colour is related to the biological functions of birds, and the colour of poultry eggshells can affect consumers' choices. This study explored the difference in the metabolite composition of duck eggshells to screen the key substances that affect the eggshell colours. The green and white duck eggshells were selected for non-targeted metabolomics analysis. We screened 402 and 512 differentially expressed metabolites in the negative and positive ion modes, respectively. Among them, 40 differentially expressed metabolites were annotated with specific names and related functions, of which the expression levels of 8 metabolites showed extremely significant differences. They were 2-heptanone, 12-hydroxydodecanoic acid, D-fructose, dodecanedioic acid, L-leucine, methyl jasmonate, palmitoleic acid, and styrene oxide. Additionally, the annotated differentially expressed metabolites were enriched in 33 metabolic pathways, including aminoacyl-tRNA biosynthesis, amino acid metabolism, galactose metabolism, etc. The results showed that the expression of metabolites between green and white eggshells differed in ducks; among metabolites with extremely significant differences in expression, the expression level of L-leucine in green eggshells was higher than that in ducks white eggshells. Therefore, we speculated that the increased expression of L-leucine promoted the response of related metabolic pathways, enhanced the expression of antioxidants, and changed the eggshell colours. Highlights The metabolites of green and white shells were different. 40 DEMs were annotated with specific names and related functions. The annotated DEMs were enriched in 33 metabolic pathways.

Agro-Industrial Waste as a Source of Raw Material: Eggshell and Ash of Useful for the Synthesis of Hydroxyapatite

Agave salmiana ash and poultry eggshell powder as CaO sources were used for obtaining nanostructured hydroxyapatite (HAP). The synthesis was carried out by the Green Chemistry Hydrothermal Biosynthesis at 180°C with a pH of 5, by reacting CaO from Agave Salmiana ash and Eggshell powder, with dibasic calcium phosphate (CaHPO4•2H2O) in an aqueous solution, with Aloe barbadensis extract. The product was characterized by X-ray diffraction, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), and Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM). The size and shape of the hydroxyapatite particles changed dramatically in the presence of Aloe barbadensis. Large crystals of Hydroxyapatite were observed when Eggshell powder and Agave salmiana ash were used as raw materials in the presence of the Aloe barbadensis surfactant. Crystals with shapes of ribbons and plates from 1 micrometers to 8 micrometers were observed when using the eggshell powder in the presence of Aloe barbadensis and, in the case of Agave salmiana ash in the presence of Aloe barbadensis, crystals with shapes of quadrangular prisms and hexagonal (polyhedra) with sizes from 2 micrometers to 20 micrometers were observed. Hydroxyapatite was therefore successfully biosynthesized by a green and sustainable method that reduces the environmental impact.

Soil-cement blocks: a sustainable alternative for the reuse of industrial solid waste

This study aimed to analyze potential industrial solid waste that can be added to soil-cement blocks. A narrative literature review was conducted in the Scopus academic database, using as the search criteria keywords related to the topic, such as soil-cement, building materials, soil-cement blocks, soil-cement bricks, physical and mechanical properties, solid waste, life cycle analysis, and civil construction. A variety of industrial solid waste that can be incorporated into soil-cement blocks was observed, such as waste rock, sludge from water treatment plants, wood sawdust, polyethylene terephthalate fibers (PET), vegetable fibers from loofah, hemp fibers, rice husks, brachiaria grass, poultry eggshells, sugar cane bagasse, wheat and barley straw, welding slag, foundry sand, waste from quartzite mining, construction, and demolition, mechanical turning, pulp industry grains, and steel mill co-products. Among the investigated wastes, those that improved the physical and mechanical properties of the soil-cement blocks were grains from the cellulose industry, rice husks, Brachiaria grass, steel by-products with granulated soil-cement blocks and blast furnace slag. The waste that produced no satisfactory results was sludge from a water treatment plant, sugarcane bagasse, and vegetable loofah. Through this research, it was possible to verify that the behavior of soil-cement blocks is influenced by several factors in their manufacture, mainly regarding the type and percentage of incorporated waste. However, it is important to be concerned with its application in waste blocks so as not to increase the environmental impacts in the long term.

Poultry eggshell effects on microporous poly(lactic acid)-based film fabrication for active compound-releasing sachets

Poultry eggshells (ES) were used to create microporous structures as an alternative and sustainable filler in a poly(lactic acid)/polybutylene succinate (PLA/PBS) blend designed for sachet use. Crude chicken eggshell (CES) and duck eggshell (DES) are utilized as natural calcium carbonate (CaCO3) sources by systematically varying filler content. Using CES and DES as sustainable fillers produces smaller pore diameters (ranging from 300 to 500 nm), a higher pore density (~ 106 pores/mm2) and greater pore homogeneity within the PLA/PBS matrices. Poultry ES also improves calcium dispersion within the PLA/PBS matrices, compared to the highly variable pore sizes which cause the calcium agglomeration clearly observed in the PLA/PBS/CaCO3 composites. Moreover, the organic residuals contained in the crude poultry ES promote interfacial adhesion in PLA/PBS matrices, resulting in uniform micropore distribution. The obtained morphologies of the PLA/PBS/poultry ES composites permit oxygen and water permeation comparable to those of conventional plastics currently used as active compound-releasing sachets. The stress–strain curves also reveal slightly improved toughness with 0.3 phr poultry ES. Lastly, poultry ES also induces crystalline PLA and PBS in α-forms with Xc,PLA of 20–30% and Xc,PBS of 30–50% and maintains high tensile strength, similar to that of PLA/PBS/CaCO3 composites.

Mechanism of Cu2+and reactive yellow 145 dye adsorption onto eggshell waste as low-cost adsorbent

ABSTRACT This work presents low-cost sorbent powder obtained from agro-waste of poultry eggshells for the adsorption of contaminants and was elucidated with transmission electron microscopy, Fourier transform infrared, scanning electron microscope, X-ray diffraction and N2 adsorption–desorption techniques. It was observed that a solution pH of 2.0 and 5.0 was enough for the maximum uptake of reactive yellow 145 dye (RY 145) and Cu(II) ions, respectively, which showed that the pollutants removal was affected by the pH of solution. Langmuir monolayer adsorption capacity was found to be 101.500 mg/g for Cu(II) and 88.450 mg/g for reactive yellow 145 dye, respectively. Redlich–Peterson and Sips models both fitted well with the adsorption data. The Pseudo-second-order equation demonstrated good relationship with the experimental data and thus explained the adsorption mechanism to be chemisorption. Values of different thermodynamic considerations gave the values of ΔH° and ΔS° to be 30452.020, 27194.180 and 100.930, 90.370 kJmol−1 for Cu(II) and RY 145 dye, respectively. Findings from this current study revealed that the prepared sorbent from agro-waste of eggshell can be a useful material for the elimination of Cu(II) and RY 145 dye in aqueous solutions.

Incorporation of poultry eggshell and litter ash as high loading polymer fillers in polypropylene

With oil supplies needed for plastic polymer generation reducing, alterative feedstock materials are required for polymer producers. Replacement of plastic feedstock with other materials, such as fillers or functional additives, is a suitable method. Many of these materials are being derived from waste sources, including potential those derived from poultry production. Eggshell and poultry litter (incinerated into ash – PL(Ash)) have been investigated to determine the effect of using as a high loading filler with polypropylene. Characterisation of both materials showed each contained minerals suitable for polymer usage, with eggshell consisting of large amounts of calcium carbonate (common polymer filler). Both were added to polypropylene in loading up to 55% wt., and were successfully compounded into consistent polymer pellets, followed by injection moulding into test samples. Despite the use of a relatively large particle size, improvement in Young's modulus, flexural properties and impact strength were recorded. Samples however became more brittle with reductions in tensile strength and elongation. Characterisation showed both eggshell and PL(Ash) adhered with polypropylene, exhibiting full contact between particles and matrix, verifying potential as a polymer filler material and as a replacement to high amounts of oil-based polymer feedstock.

Incidence and Antimicrobial Resistance of Campylobacter Species Isolated from Poultry Eggshell Samples

Campylobacter species (Campylobacter spp.) are imperative foodborne pathogens regarding to the consumption of contaminated poultry products. An existing survey was performed to determine the incidence and antimicrobial resistance profile of Campylobacter spp in egg samples from 9 poultry species. Four-hundred and fifty poultry eggshell samples were collected and assessed by bacterial culture. Campylobacter spp were identified by PCR. Antimicrobial resistance profile was assessed by the disk diffusion. Eighty-four of 450 (18.67%) eggshell samples were contaminated with Campylobacter species. The uppermost and lowermost rates of contamination with Campylobacter spp were found in local chicken (30%) and chicken (8%) eggshells. Incidence of Campylobacter jejuni (C. jejuni) and Campylobacter coli (C. coli) amongst the isolated Campylobacter spp. were 53.57% and 46.43%, respectively. C. jejuni displayed the uppermost incidence of resistance toward tetracycline (66.66%), nalidixic acid (62.20%) and ciprofloxacin (48.89%). C. coli bacteria displayed the uppermost incidence of resistance toward tetracycline (46.15%), nalidixic acid (41.03%) and ciprofloxacin (30.77%). Poultry eggshells, particularly local chicken and partridge were potential sources of transmission of Campylobacter spp. to human. Well-cooking of eggs and monitor the hygienic circumstances of aviculture can reduce the risk of Campylobacter in eggshells. Further surveys are essential to assess other roles of the Campylobacter spp in poultry eggshell samples.

Effect of calcination temperature on hydroxyapatite developed from waste poultry eggshell

Nowadays, researchers are exploring the suitability of agricultural wastes as biomaterials to solve biomedical related problems. In this work, we investigated the effect of calcination temperature on the properties of hydrothermally synthesized hydroxyapatite (HAp). Chicken eggshells were obtained from local farm as a waste and were thoroughly washed and boiled in distilled water for 10 min to remove its inherent membranes. The cleaned shells were oven dried for 24 h, and thereafter divided into three parts to carry out a three-stage calcination treatment at 800 oC, 900 oC and 1000 oC, respectively. The calcined samples were separately dispersed in beakers containing 100 ml of distilled water and orthophosphoric acid, and were subjected to vigorous stirring under a mechanical stirrer on a hot plate at 90 oC. Ageing treatment of the samples gave lumped white solids for each samples, and were subsequently pulverised into powders. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX), were employed to study the powder morphology, phase components and elemental composition, respectively. It was observed that the HAp synthesized at 1000 oC (HA1000) has a similar stoichiometry ratio (Ca/P = 1.65) with that of natural bone and also has the tendency to agglomerate by creating pores required for body fluid circulation.

Inhibitory effect of cold nitrogen plasma on Salmonella Typhimurium biofilm and its application on poultry egg preservation

Salmonella Typhimurium easily forms biofilms on poultry eggshell, which poses a serious threat to the safety of poultry egg. Therefore, this study aims to evaluate the inhibitory mechanism of cold nitrogen plasma (CNP) on Salmonella Typhimurium biofilm and apply it to poultry eggs to reduce the risk of contamination. The results of crystal violet staining showed that CNP can effectively remove biofilm. Electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectra and reactive oxygen species (ROS) concentration analysis showed that CNP reacts with water to generate hydroxyl radicals and stimulate cells to cause an increase in intracellular oxidative stress. After treating biofilm with CNP (600 W, 2min), the metabolic activity of Salmonella Typhimurium decreased by 82.2%, and the extracellular protein, extracellular polysaccharide and extracellular DNA respectively decreased from 68.5 to 12.3 μg/mL, from 32.1 to 8.4 μg/mL, and 26.5 to 8.6 μg/mL qRT-PCR analysis showed that CNP treatment down-regulated the transcription of genes related to extracellular protein, extracellular polysaccharide and extracellular DNA. In addition, CNP could remove Salmonella Typhimurium biofilm on poultry eggshells without significantly affecting sensory quality.

Association of three novel SNPs in the ATF4 gene with layer duck eggshell quality

Abstract Activating transcription factor 4 (ATF4) plays an important role in regulating the transport of calcium ions in the body. Therefore, we hypothesised that the ATF4 gene ( ATF4) affected poultry eggshell quality because calcium is the most important component of avian eggshells. The aim of this study was to explore the effects of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) of ATF4 on eggshell quality in laying ducks. The results indicated that three SNPs (g.149718392 GÂ >Â A, g.149718569 GÂ >Â A and g.149718665 AÂ >Â G) were identified in the coding region of exon 3 of ATF4 by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and directly two-tailed sequencing. The three SNPs were moderately polymorphic loci and were in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. The combination of the three SNPs produced 4 haplotypes and 10 diplotypes. Association analysis showed that the g.149718665 AÂ >Â G locus was significantly associated with eggshell thickness, and genotype GG was favourable in increasing layer duck eggshell thickness. Diplotype H2H2 was more favourable for eggshell weight, thickness and strength than the other 9 diplotypes, which revealed that haplotype H2 may have a positive effect on eggshell calcium deposition. Thus, the three SNPs of ATF4 may be used as markers in selection for improved eggshell quality in layer ducks.

Structural performance of poultry eggshell derived hydroxyapatite based high density polyethylene bio-composites

In this research, hydroxyapatite (HAp) was synthesized from chicken eggshell waste by hydrothermal method for the development of bio-composite material suitable for biomedical implant. However, since environmental influences on natural materials are unique for different geographical locations in the world, the use of agro wastes from these locations need to be investigated. This work provides the detail results of the potentials of eggshell as HAp source. High-density polyethylene (HDPE)/HAp composites were developed by random dispersion of Hap (10, 20, 30 and 40 wt.%) in HDPE matrix, and were designated as HAC10, HAC20, HAC30, and HAC40. The HAp-filled HDPE composites were developed by a hot compression moulding process. The samples were subjected to tensile, flexural, impact, fracture toughness and wear tests according to ASTM standards in order to establish their structural performance as an implant material. Furthermore, the samples were also tested for hydrophilicity using tap water and simulated body fluid (SBF). X-ray diffraction analysis showed strong peaks of hydroxyapatite phase which established that the influence of the selected processing conditions on the poultry eggshell as a natural source for the biomedical application was suitable for the synthesis of high-quality hydroxyapatite. The mechanical properties of the developed composites were enhanced to the level of the required properties expected of an implant material compared to the control sample except for impact strength. Water absorption characteristics of the developed composite samples also displayed expected behaviour in SBF solution than in tap water thereby promoting the material as a good implant material. From the results, the sample with 40 wt.% HAp possess the highest values in the mechanical properties examined while sample from 20 wt.% had the best fracture toughness. The results revealed that these waste eggshells could be successfully converted into useful biocompatible HAp particles needed for the enhancement of the mechanical properties of polymer composites to meet the structural challenges of bio-composites.

Importance of defect nanocrystalline calcium hydroxyapatite characteristics for developing the dental biomimetic composites

Abstract Applying a set of structural-spectroscopic methods of analysis we have studied the relationships between the structure, morphology and sorption characteristics of the samples of nanocrystalline carbonate-substituted hydroxyapatite (C-HAP) synthesized with the use of biogenic calcium source (poultry eggshell) obtained by the chemical deposition from a solution. With the use of X-ray diffractometry and X-ray microanalysis it was found that the appearance of impurities in the structure of synthesized material was due to their presence in calcium carbonate of the poultry eggshell and this could result in the changes of parameters in the elementary crystal cell of hydroxyapatite without formation of the additional phosphate phases. Optical and ESR spectroscopy allowed us to find that in the presence of the inherited set of impurities inclusion of carbonate ions into the structure of our synthesized hydroxyapatite takes place with the formation of C-HAP of B-type. An increase in the content of phosphate groups PO4 in the process of the materials synthesis in the atmosphere results in the reduction of that of one of structurally bound CO3 groups. A decrease in the pH value in the solution during the synthesis connected with the increase in the PO43− anions content leads to the change of morphology of the C-HAP samples due to the increase in the size of intracrystalline defects – nanopores at the surface of C-HAP nanocrystals. Such a change in the morphology of the materials resulted in the changes of the sorption characteristics of the samples that were measured by means of thermal desorption of nitrogen technique. The specific surface area of C-HAP powders determined by means of the BET technique was ∼55.5 ± 0.9 m2/g, exceeding by several times that of the known analogs. Meanwhile, despite the developed surface the C-HAP samples remained rather stable in the atmosphere of the saturated water vapour and the main losses under polarization are related to Maxwell-Wagner losses. Analysis of characteristics for the C-HAP samples obtained from a biogenic source of calcium demonstrated their potential significance for obtaining of biomimetic materials imitating structure, morphology and anisotropy of the native hard tissues of the human tooth.

Straightforward synthesis of calcium levulinate from biomass-derived levulinic acid and calcium carbonate in egg-shells

Abstract Calcium levulinate (CL) is a nutritional supplement for calcium and a chemical intermediate in synthesizing levulinic biofuels. The reported synthesis of CL involve reaction between cellulose-derived levulinic acid (LA) and calcium hydroxide in an aqueous medium. In this work, we report the production of CL using CaCO3 from poultry egg shells. The scalable production uses biomass-derived LA and egg-shell derived CaCO3 under conventional heating and mechanical stirring. The reaction was optimized on temperature, duration of reaction, and equivalent of CaCO3. Using 1.5 equivalent of CaCO3, the reaction completed within 2h at 50°C and afforded up to 97% isolated yield of CL as a crystalline solid. The reaction was also successfully carried out under mechanical grinding and scaled up to 20 g. The purity of the product was confirmed by melting point, FTIR, 1H-NMR and 13C-NMR spectroscopy.

Biowaste-Derived Hydroxyapatite for Effective Removal of Reactive Yellow 4 Dye: Equilibrium, Kinetic, and Thermodynamic Studies

This study examines the application of poultry eggshell (PES) as a source of calcium for the synthesis of hydroxyapatite (HA) via annealation. The synthesized powder (poultry eggshell hydroxyapatite (PESHA)) was characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), EDAX, and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) analytical techniques. This powder was used for adsorptive removal of the Reactive Yellow 4 (RY4) dye in a batch process. Results from morphological analysis by SEM and TEM revealed that the microstructure of the apatite is made up of needle–rod-like particles with the length of 15–60 nm, breadth of 4–6 nm, and crystallite size of 86.32 nm. EDAX revealed that HA has Ca/P ratio of 1.63, indicating a nonstoichiometric apatite, whereas XRD analysis presented it as a pure monophasic hydroxyapatite powder. Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy indicated that the adsorption is due to the electrostatic interaction between the functional groups of the dye and those on the apatite surface. The maximum adsorption capacity (Qmax) of 127.9 mg g–1 was obtained for the adsorption process, whereas the pseudo-first-order model with R2 > 0.99 best described the adsorption mechanism. Furthermore, the thermodynamic studies revealed that the adsorption process was exothermic and spontaneous in nature with ΔH and ΔS values of 120.79 kJ mol–1 and 0.395 kJ mol–1 K–1, respectively. Thus, hydroxyapatite fabricated from the poultry waste of eggshell can be effectively utilized as an excellent nontoxic and cheap adsorbent for the removal of RY4 dye from aqueous medium.

A Review of the Uses of Poultry Eggshells and Shell Membranes

This study was conducted to find out the multiple uses of eggshells in nutrition and medicine. Eggshells can be utilized for various purposes that minimize their effect on environmental pollution. Eggshells present healthy, balanced calcium due to its trace amounts of other minerals and is probably the best natural source of calcium. One whole medium sized eggshell makes about one teaspoon of powder, which yields about 750-800 mgs of elemental calcium plus other micro elements. Eggshell powder has been reported to increase bone mineral density in people and animals with osteoporosis. In laying hens in the late production phase, eggshell powder has been found to increase egg production and improve the quality of shells. Discarded eggshells are often used as a plant fertilizer and are effective liming sources. This is because eggshells contain calcium that raises, or neutralizes, the pH level of overly acidic soil. Chicken eggshells can be used as an alternative soil stabilizer like lime since they have the same chemical composition. Such stabilized soil can be used as subgrade materials in road construction works. Eggshell membrane consists of collagen as a component. Collagen is a type of protein, fibrous in nature that connects and supports other bodily tissues, such as skin, bone, tendons, muscles and cartilage. Collagen has been isolated mainly from bovine and swine skins and bones Collagen used in medicine, biochemical, pharmaceutical, food and cosmetics industries. After the outbreaks of bovine spongioform encephalopathy, foot and mouth disease, autoimmune and allergic reactions, restrictions on collagen uses from these sources were enforced. Eggshell membrane collagen is very low in autoimmune and allergic reactions as well as high in bio-safety and is of similar characteristics to other mammalian collagen. Eggshells/shell membranes have multiple uses in nutrition, medicine, construction and art works.