Potential Public Health Threat Research Articles

Genomic Shift in Population Dynamics of mcr-1-positive Escherichia coli in Human Carriage

Emergence of the colistin resistance gene, mcr-1, has attracted worldwide attention. Despite the prevalence of mcr-1-positive Escherichia coli (MCRPEC) strains in human carriage showing a significant decrease between 2016 and 2019, genetic differences in MCRPEC strains remain largely unknown. We therefore conducted a comparative genomic study on MCRPEC strains from fecal samples of healthy human subjects in 2016 and 2019. We identified three major differences in MCRPEC strains between these two time points. First, the insertion sequence ISApl1 was often deleted and the percentage of mcr-1-carrying IncI2 plasmids was increased in MCRPEC strains in 2019. Second, the antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs), aac(3)-IVa and blaCTX-M-1, emerged and coexisted with mcr-1 in 2019. Third, MCRPEC strains in 2019 contained more virulence genes, resulting in an increased proportion of extraintestinal pathogenic E. coli (ExPEC) strains (36.1%) in MCRPEC strains in 2019 compared to that in 2016 (10.5%), implying that these strains could occupy intestinal ecological niches by competing with other commensal bacteria. Our results suggest that despite the significant reduction in the prevalence of MCRPEC strains in humans from 2016 to 2019, MCRPEC exhibits increased resistance to other clinically important ARGs and contains more virulence genes, which may pose a potential public health threat.

Risk profile and mode of transmission of Mpox: A rapid review and individual patient data meta-analysis of case studies.

Since May 2022, an outbreak of Mpox in non-endemic countries has become a potential public health threat. The objective of this rapid review was to examine the risk profile and modes of transmission of Mpox. PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus were searched from inception through July 30 to collect case reports/series on patients with Mpox infection. For meta-analysis, data on the total number of participants and deaths by binary categories of exposure (age, sex, country, other co-infections or existing conditions, and mode of contagion) were used. A total of 62 studies (4659 cases) were included. Most cases came from Africa (84.3%), followed by Europe (13.9%). In 63.6% of the cases, the mode of contagion was human contact, while 22.8% of the cases were by animal contact, and 13.5% were unknown or not reported. The mortality rate was 6.5% throughout these studies. The risk of mortality was higher in the younger age group (risk difference: 0.19; 95% CI: 0.02-0.36), in cases with other co-infections or current chronic conditions (risk difference: 0.03; 95% CI: 0.01-0.05) and in the category of low- and middle-income countries (risk difference: 0.06; 95% CI: 0.05-0.08). There were no significant differences with respect to sex or mode of contagion. These results help to understand the major infection pathways and mortality risk profiles of Mpox and underscores the importance of preventing outbreaks in specific settings, especially in settings densely populated by children, such as day care centres and schools.

Large scale seasonal forecasting of peak season algae metrics in the Midwest and Northeast U.S.

In recent decades, many inland lakes have seen an increase in the prevalence of potentially harmful algae. In many inland lakes, the peak season for algae abundance (summer and early fall in the northern hemisphere) coincides with the peak season for recreational use. Currently, little information regarding expected algae conditions is available prior to the peak season for productivity in inland lakes. Peak season algae conditions are influenced by an array of pre-season (spring and early summer) local and global scale variables; identifying these variables for forecast development may be useful in managing potential public health threats posed by harmful algae. Using the LAGOS-NE dataset, pre-season local and global drivers of peak-season algae metrics (represented by chlorophyll-a) are identified for 178 lakes across the Northeast and Midwest U.S. from readily available gridded datasets. Forecasting models are built for each lake conditioned on relevant pre-season predictors. Forecasts are assessed for the magnitude, severity, and duration of seasonal chlorophyll concentrations. Regions of pre-season sea surface temperature, and pre-season chlorophyll-a demonstrate the most predictive power for peak season algae metrics, and resulting models show significant skill. Based on categorical forecast metrics, more than 70% of magnitude models and 90% of duration models outperform climatology. Forecasts of high and severe algae magnitude perform best in large mesotrophic and oligotrophic lakes, however, high algae duration performance appears less dependent on lake characteristics. The advance notice of elevated algae biomass provided by these models may allow lake managers to better prepare for challenges posed by algae during the high use season for inland lakes.

Meteorological change and hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome epidemic in China, 2004–2018

Hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS), caused by hantavirus, is a serious public health problem in China. Despite intensive countermeasures including Patriotic Health Campaign, rodent control and vaccination in affected areas, HFRS is still a potential public health threat in China, with more than 10,000 new cases per year. Previous epidemiological evidence suggested that meteorological factors could influence HFRS incidence, but the studies were mainly limited to a specific city or region in China. This study aims to evaluate the association between monthly HFRS cases and meteorological change at the country level using a multivariate distributed lag nonlinear model (DLNM) from 2004 to 2018. The results from both univariate and multivariate models showed a non-linear cumulative relative risk relationship between meteorological factors (with a lag of 0–6 months) such as mean temperature (Tmean), precipitation, relative humidity (RH), sunshine hour (SH), wind speed (WS) and HFRS incidence. The risk for HFRS cases increased steeply as the Tmean between − 23 and 14.79 °C, SH between 179.4 and 278.4 h and RH remaining above 69% with 50–95 mm precipitation and 1.70–2.00 m/s WS. In conclusion, meteorological factors such as Tmean and RH showed delayed-effects on the increased risk of HFRS in the study and the lag varies across climate factors. Temperature with a lag of 6 months (RR = 3.05) and precipitation with a lag of 0 months (RR = 2.08) had the greatest impact on the incidence of HFRS.

Influence of furan and lead co-exposure at environmentally relevant concentrations on neurobehavioral performance, redox-regulatory system and apoptotic responses in rats

Furan and lead are contaminants of global concern due to the potential public health threat associated with their exposure. Herein, the neurobehavioral performance, biochemical effects and histological alterations associated with co-exposure to furan (8 mg/kg) and lead acetate at low, environmentally realistic concentrations (1, 10 and 100 µg PbAc/L) for 28 uninterrupted days were investigated in rats. The results demonstrated that locomotor, motor and exploratory deficits associated with separate exposure to furan and lead was exacerbated in the co-exposed rats. Furan and lead co-exposure aggravated the marked decrease in acetylcholinesterase activity and antioxidant status, elevation in oxido-inflammatory stress indices and caspases activation in the cerebrum and cerebellum of exposed rats compared with control. Furan and lead co-exposure worsened neuronal degeneration as verified by histomorphometry and histochemical staining. Collectively, furan and lead acts together to exacerbate neurotoxicity via inhibition of cholinergic system, induction of oxido-inflammatory stress and caspases activation in rats.

The detection of three new Haemaphysalis ticks (Acari: Ixodidae) in Singapore and their potential threat for public health, companion animals, and wildlife

Efforts to safeguard human and animal health against ticks and tick-borne diseases are principally reliant on careful surveillance. Within Singapore, the importance of ticks and tick-borne diseases is increasingly recognized. However, developing foundational knowledge of the local diversity of ticks and tick-borne microbes, as well as their ecology, is ongoing. Nation-wide surveillance efforts revealed the presence of three previously unreported species of Haemaphysalis from Singapore, namely: H. bispinosa, H. hystricis, and H. wellingtoni. All three species are known to feed on humans and appear to have established populations within Singapore. We record the first infestation of humans by H. hystricis and H. wellingtoni within Singapore and present all known local host records from these three newly detected tick species. The threat posed by these species to local public health, companion animals, and wildlife is discussed.

Molecular identification and subtype analysis of Blastocystis in captive Asiatic black bears (Ursus thibetanus) in China’s Heilongjiang and Fujian provinces

Blastocystis sp. is the most isolated enteric protozoan in parasitological surveys of humans. A substantial percentage of human infections is attributed to zoonotic transmissions. However, the contribution of each animal source to human infections with blastocystis is not yet fully understood. This study thus aimed to determine the infection rates and subtype distributions of Blastocystis sp. in captive Asiatic black bears (Ursus thibetanus) in China’s Heilongjiang and Fujian provinces. A total of 218 fresh fecal specimens were collected from captive Asiatic black bears in Heilongjiang (n = 36) and Fujian (n = 182) between May 2015 and December 2017. Genomic DNA was extracted from each sample and then examined for Blastocystis through SSU rRNA gene amplicon-based sequencing. A phylogenetic tree based on the Blastocystis positive sequences was reconstructed using the Mega X program. Eleven percent (24/218) of the animals had Blastocystis and six Blastocystis subtypes, including ST4 (n = 14), ST10 (n = 3), ST1 (n = 2), ST2 (n = 1), ST5 (n = 1), and ST12 (n = 1) were identified. A total of 14 representative sequences, including seven sequences that have been described previously and seven novel sequences comprising ST10 (n = 2), ST5 (n = 1), and ST4 (n = 4), were obtained from the six subtypes of Blastocystis. This study is the first to report the presence of Blastocystis in captive Asiatic black bears in Fujian, China. It provides baseline data for controlling and preventing Blastocystis infection in farm communities. Zoonotic infections in bears with ST1, ST2, ST4, ST5, ST10, and ST14 should be considered potential public health threats. The novel ST sequences of Blastocystis generated in this study provide novel insights into the genotypic variation within the Blastocystis sp.

Use of microbial fecal indicator monitoring and fecal source tracking as a park management tool in Rocky Mountain National Park

Visitation to national parks in the United States increased by an estimated 9,304,786 visitors from 2018 to 2019. This increased visitation has resulted in negative impacts to protected natural resources. Visitor use impacts include contamination of surface waters with fecal waste which may contain pathogenic microorganisms. In this study we evaluated the use of fecal indicator bacteria approach and microbial source tracking as a park management tool to (i) identify potential public health threats in recreational water bodies; and (ii) characterize visitor use habits throughout Rocky Mountain National Park. Traditional fecal indicators including E. coli, fecal coliforms, and total coliforms were utilized as well as antibiotic resistant bacteria. Fecal indicator bacteria and antibiotic resistant bacteria were present in all water bodies located in high visitation areas. Trends in fecal indicator bacteria and antibiotic resistant bacteria concentrations correlated with visitor use metrics, suggesting those could be markers for characterizing visitor use and impact within the park. We also present a case study of the use of these indicators for park management by assessing the efficacy of two pit toilet types on inhibiting fecal waste from entering downstream surface waters. A new urine diverting toilet did not consistently prohibit coliforms, antibiotic resistant bacteria, or human-associated fecal genetic markers from entering downstream surface waters as compared to a traditional pit toilet or areas with no upstream pit toilet. The use of microbial fecal indicator monitoring offers a two-fold data acquisition opportunity for park managers to address potential public health concerns while characterizing visitor use.

Molecular docking and dynamics simulation analysis of nucleoprotein from the Crimea-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus strain Baghdad-12 with FDA approved drugs.

Crimea-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus is considered a potential public health threat due to the high case fatality ratio of the disease hemorrhagic phase and absence of approved vaccines or antiviral agents. Therefore, it is of interest to screen FDA approved drugs against the nucleoprotein crystal of Crimea-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus strain Baghdad-12 by using molecular docking and dynamics simulation. Hence, we report that the beta receptor blocker Nebivolol and the antihistamine Loratadine may bind to RNA binding region on nucleoprotein for further consideration in drug design and development.

Listeria monocytogenes in foods-From culture identification to whole-genome characteristics.

Listeria monocytogenes is an important foodborne pathogen, which is able to persist in the food production environments. The presence of these bacteria in different niches makes them a potential threat for public health. In the present review, the current information on the classical and alternative methods used for isolation and identification of L. monocytogenes in food have been described. Although these techniques are usually simple, standardized, inexpensive, and are routinely used in many food testing laboratories, several alternative molecular‐based approaches for the bacteria detection in food and food production environments have been developed. They are characterized by the high sample throughput, a short time of analysis, and cost‐effectiveness. However, these methods are important for the routine testing toward the presence and number of L. monocytogenes, but are not suitable for characteristics and typing of the bacterial isolates, which are crucial in the study of listeriosis infections. For these purposes, novel approaches, with a high discriminatory power to genetically distinguish the strains during epidemiological studies, have been developed, e.g., whole‐genome sequence‐based techniques such as NGS which provide an opportunity to perform comparison between strains of the same species. In the present review, we have shown a short description of the principles of microbiological, alternative, and modern methods of detection of L. monocytogenes in foods and characterization of the isolates for epidemiological purposes. According to our knowledge, similar comprehensive papers on such subject have not been recently published, and we hope that the current review may be interesting for research communities.

West Nile virus outbreak in Pakistan: Another potential public health threat in the pipeline?

West Nile virus (WNV), a single-stranded RNA virus belonging to the family of Flaviviridae, is an arbovirus transmitted to humans predominantly by mosquito bites. It exhibits a wide range of clinical findings ranging from asymptomatic presentation to severe several neurological disorders. WNV has afflicted several countries around the globe including Pakistan. News of yet another outbreak in the country by WNV is circulating again. Concerned authorities should act vigilantly before the endemic takes over completely and bring down the already bereaving healthcare of Pakistan.

High Levels of Multi Drug Resistant Escherichia coli Pathovars in Preharvest Environmental Samples: A Ticking Time Bomb for Fresh Produce Related Disease Outbreak

The preharvest environment provides a suitable platform for the emergence and dissemination of multidrug resistant pathogenic bacteria. This could be detrimental to public health and may lead to fresh produce related disease outbreaks when transferred to the food web. This study evaluated the occurrence and antibiogram fingerprints of the pathogenic strains of Escherichia coli (E. coli) recovered from irrigation water and agricultural soil samples in fresh produce farms in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. E. coli was isolated, pathotyped and screened for antibiogram fingerprints using standard cultural and molecular methods. An antibiogram-based K-means cluster analysis and neighbour-joining dendrogram was used to elucidate the relatedness of the isolates. Of the confirmed isolates, 37% harboured at least one of the screened virulence genes (VGs) that encode for intestinal and extraintestinal E. coli pathovars. The most prevalent pathovar/associated VG in all the samples was Enterohemorrhagic E. coli/stx2. Of all the antimicrobials tested, E. coli pathovars conferred the highest resistance against ampicillin with a median single antimicrobial resistance (AMR) index of 0.23 (IQR: 0.10–0.38, 95% CI: 0.16–0.27) for pathovars from irrigation water and 0.01 (IQR: 0.01–0.03, 95% CI: 0.01–0.03) for pathovars from agricultural soil. About 60 and 20% of the pathovars from irrigation water and agricultural soil were multi drug resistant with a median multiple AMR index of 0.41 (IQR: 0.25–0.52, 95% CI: 0.31–0.47) and 0.38 (IQR: 0.23–0.66, 95% CI: 0.19–0.69) respectively. The most prevalent resistance genes detected were sulI, catII, tetA and AmpC across all sample types. The blaTEM was the most prevalent extended-spectrum β-lactamase resistance gene detected. A positive correlation between the phenotypic and genotypic AMR profiles of the pathovars in irrigation water samples, r = 0.6, p ≤ 0.01 and agricultural soil samples, r = 0.8, p ≤ 0.01 was recorded. The antibiogram based dendrogram generated 11 and 7 clades from irrigation water and agricultural soil samples respectively, indicating that the isolates are highly diversified. The findings revealed the occurrence of highly diversified multidrug resistant E. coli pathovars in the preharvest environment, indicating potential public health threats.

Phenotypic and genotypic characterization of antibiotic resistance of Listeria monocytogenes isolated from raw milk samples collected from Polonnaruwa, Sri Lanka

Listeria monocytogenes is a food-borne pathogen that can cause severe invasive infection called ‘listerosis’ in humans. Development of antibiotic resistance is a major setback in the management of conditions caused by Listeria in both human and veterinary medicine. In this study, antibiotic resistance of fifty L. monocytogenes strains isolated from raw milk samples collected from farms in Polonnaruwa district, Sri Lanka was determined for four commonly used antibiotics; penicillin, ampicillin, streptomycin and tetracycline. The strains were also tested for the presence of selected antibiotic resistant genes (penA, ampC, strA, strB, tetA and tetB). L monocytogenes isolates showed resistance to ampicillin (60%), penicillin (40%) streptomycin (16%) and tetracycline (8%) in diffusion assays. Phenotypic multidrug resistance was exhibited by twenty isolates. The tetracycline resistant gene (tetA) was detected in seven isolates, while tetB was not detected in any. Presence of streptomycin resistant genes (strA or strB) was confirmed in seven isolates. Ampicillin (ampC) and penicillin (penA) resistant genes were not detected in any of the tested isolates. Except from the samples collected from Sungavila area, isolates from other sampling areas showed resistance to at least one of the antibiotics tested, suggesting that raw milk samples are prone to be contaminated with L. monocytogenes strains with different antibiotic resistant profiles. Therefore, necessary hygienic precautions are recommended to avoid any potential public health threats and to safeguard the health of raw milk consumers.

Barriers to health care services among US-based undocumented Latinx immigrants within the sociopolitical climate under the Trump administration: A comparative analysis between client experiences and provider perceptions

As President Biden's administration works towards a ‘fair and humane’ immigration overhaul, it becomes critical to examine the implications of immigration policies/laws under the Trump administration on the well-being of undocumented residents to inform equitable reformations. We investigate challenges faced by undocumented Latinx immigrants in accessing health care services in the sociopolitical climate under the Trump administration. This study, which follows a similar study among frontline service providers, presents key findings from 23 in-depth interviews with Latinx individuals. Understanding their experiences is necessary to advance access to health-promoting services and uphold the human right to health. Our study participants' narratives document multiple barriers to health care services, many notably exacerbated by increasingly restrictive immigration policies/laws and heightened punitive interior enforcement practices under the Trump administration. As the nation awaits equitable immigration reform, health care organizations should immediately incorporate, amplify, or alter programs/practices to facilitate access among their undocumented clients. Focused organizational changes have the potential to reduce unmet health needs, minimize financial burdens for families, and curtail potential public health threats, the latter a particularly imperative goal within the current COVID-19 pandemic. We also distill conclusions drawn from our interviews with clients and their convergence with and divergence from conclusions drawn from our related research with providers. While providers recognize the negative impact of sociopolitical factors on their clients' access to health care services, client experiences illuminate potential gaps in their understanding. Bridging understanding between providers and clients can improve access, utilization, and retention in health care services.

Avoiding a crisis at Christmas: a systematic review of adverse health effects or ‘Chrishaps’ caused by traditional hazard sources and COVID‐19

ObjectiveTo complement the 2020 ANZJPH editorial “How COVID‐safe Santa can save Christmas”. In addition to a concise update regarding SARS‐CoV‐2/COVID‐19, we aimed to explore some risks of Christmas in terms of adverse health effects, which we call ‘Chrishaps’. Our overall study question was “which hazards have been scientifically associated with old Christmas essentials such as decoration, gifts, menus, and Santa himself, as well as new challenges associated with COVID‐19?” MethodWe searched the PubMed, Web of Science, and Open Grey databases systematically and Google unsystematically. ResultsThirty‐six pertinent articles – most of them case reports or retrospective analyses – documented Chrishaps. ConclusionOverall results suggested that Chrishaps come in different shapes and guises. Implications for public healthChrishaps pose a potential minor public health threat that should be borne in mind every festive season. Assessing and discussing specific public health implications of Chrishaps requires systematic risk research to be conducted.

HPV prevention and control – The way forward

The global confrontation with COVID-19 has not only diverted current healthcare resources to deal with the infection but has also resulted in increased resources in the areas of testing and screening, as well as educating most of the global public of the benefits of vaccination. When the COVID-19 pandemic eventually recedes, the opportunity must not be missed to ensure that these newly created resources are maintained and redeployed for use in testing and immunisation against other vaccine-preventable infectious diseases. A notable example is infection by human papillomavirus (HPV), the commonest sexually transmitted human virus and the leading cause of a variety of cancers in both men and women, such as cervical, head and neck, anal, vaginal, vulvar and penile cancers. The most important is cervical cancer, the objective of the global elimination goals targeting the vaccination of young female and male adolescents, screening all women and treatment of all infected women. As the campaigns to control SARS-CoV-2, the eradication of HPV-induced cancers also relies on effective prevention and control programs. The lessons learned and the technical, logistical and human resources which have been established to combat COVID-19 by vaccination and testing must be applied to the eradication of other infections which affect the global population. This commentary summarizes the opportunities that the COVID-19 pandemic has created for HPV prevention and control, lists the already available tools for HPV control, and emphasizes the potential public health threats amidst the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic.

Epidemiological Profile of Urinary Tract Infections Observed at the Institut Pasteur in Bangui, Central African Republic

The urinary tract is the second most common site of bacterial infection after the respiratory tract. Enterobacteria remain the first cause of urinary tract infections (UTIs), followed by staphylococci and non-fermenter bacteria. Furthermore, bacteria producing extended spectrum beta-lactamases (ESBL) have become more frequent, exposing African patients to therapeutic dead ends. The aim of this study was to determine the epidemiological profile of UTIs diagnosed at the Institut Pasteur in Bangui (IPB), Central African Republic (CAR), a research center that carries out antibiotic sensitivity testing according to international standards. For that, the collected demographic, clinical and biological data come from patients calling at the IPB for a urinalysis and who gave their consent for their data to be included and analyzed in this six-month cross-sectional study (January-June 2019). A total of 412 patients were enrolled in this study. The mean age was 35.2 years [1-80], females made up 55.8% of the study population and the sex ratio was 0.79:1 (M: F). Overall, 117 UTIs were detected, giving a prevalence rate of 28.4%. Of the bacterial isolates, 89.8% (105/117) were enterobacteria, of which 52.4% (55/105) were ESBL-producers. <i>Escherichia coli</i> accounted for more than half of the isolates 55.5% (65/117) and the ESBL-producers 58.2% (32/55). The 0–15-year age group showed the highest incidence of UTIs, but this rate was not significantly different from the other age groups (P = 0.665). Antecedent UTI was not a significant factor in the observed infections. However, female gender, fever, painful urination, acquisition in a healthcare setting and samples collected outside the laboratory were all significantly associated with UTI cases (P<0.005). The high proportion of ESBL-producing bacteria found during this study poses a real potential threat for public health in the CAR. Controlling antibiotic use should thus be a priority for the Ministry of Health.

Evaluation of the weekly disease surveillance system for epidemic-prone diseases in Makonde District, Zimbabwe 2020: a descriptive cross-sectional study

the weekly disease surveillance system (WDSS) is a tool used to provide an early warning of potential public health threats in Zimbabwe. In 2020, Makonde District failed to detect an anthrax outbreak at one of its facilities, this untimely and poor response of the district increased morbidity. We evaluated the weekly disease surveillance system to determine reasons for missing outbreaks and determine the usefulness of the system in the detection of outbreaks. we conducted descriptive cross-sectional study using updated Centres for Disease Control and Prevention guidelines for surveillance system evaluation. We recruited 46 health workers. A structured pretested interviewer-administered questionnaire was used to collect data on reasons for missing outbreaks, knowledge, usefulness and surveillance system attributes. Data were cleaned and bivariate analysis was conducted. health workers found the system simple (85%), acceptable (75%) and flexible (60%). However, we found only 5 (11%) health workers could correctly describe the surveillance system, only 2 (3%) were trained in disease surveillance, only 31 (65%) sent data on time, 57% of clinics had stock outs of forms, 60% of forms had entries with 100% of the data filled out and 22 (46%) of health workers analysed the data gathered and used it in meetings. the surveillance system was simple, flexible, acceptable, but unstable, untimely and not useful. There was poor knowledge on the surveillance system, health workers were not trained on disease surveillance, and quality of data was poor. Health workers should be trained in surveillance and data validation and adequate reporting tools provided.

Appraisal of groundwater vulnerability in south-central part of Bangladesh using DRASTIC model: An approach towards groundwater protection and health safety

Groundwater intrinsic vulnerability maps are considered a promising means for forestalling groundwater resources from contamination during recent years. In the present study, the DRASTIC model was used to predict groundwater vulnerability using hydro-geochemical data and Geographic Information System (GIS). The DRASTIC vulnerability index showed that the aquifer system of the study area (57%) was at moderate risk in terms of pollution. The groundwater quality index (GWQI) indicated that 89% of the study area exhibited poor water quality and was unsuitable for drinking. The mean hazard index (HI) for three age groups was higher than the threshold limit (1), suggesting potential non-carcinogenic public health threats. Carcinogenic risk (CR) showed wide variations with ranges between 1.2 × 10−4 and 4.6 ×10−2, and all of the sampling sites exceeded the threshold limit (CR> 10−4), which suggests people might have experienced a lifetime cancer risk. Among three categorized age groups, Group 2 (6–15 years) was the most vulnerable. However, it has been expected that this work will helps the decision maker for better manage groundwater resources in the study area.

Coronavirus Disease -2019 (COVID-19) in 2020: A Perspective Study of a Global Pandemic.

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) is responsible for the coronavirus disease- 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, which was first reported from Wuhan, China, in late 2019. This infection spread to thousands of people globally within a short span of time with a progressive trend to mortality of citizens. Posing a potential public health threat, SARS-CoV-2 progressed from animal-to-human to human-tohuman transmission with symptoms ranging from little or no illness to persons being severely ill and many deaths, confirming two criteria for declaring COVID-19 a pandemic. The disease shows a progressive trend in symptomology, ranging from mild to severe pneumoniae to respiratory and multi-visceral failure that often leads to the death of patients with comorbidity within a short span of time. Intensive research efforts on different aspects of this human pathogen are underway across the globe for elucidating viral transmission routes and the mechanisms employed to overcome host defense responses. Due to the massive infective potential, studies are being carried out to develop effective diagnostics and therapeutic interventions, including re-purposing antivirals and other potential inhibitors. Herein, we describe the taxonomic classification of 'SARS-CoV-2', the structural organization of its genome, its infectivity, transmission, and receptor interaction; and we summarize risk assessment and approaches used for prevention of the infection. Finally, we discuss important aspects of the development of diagnostic tools and therapeutic countermeasures that have the potential to help in controlling the COVID-19 pandemic.