Potential Migrants Research Articles

ТЕОРЕТИЧЕСКИЕ ОСНОВЫ ИЗУЧЕНИЯ МИГРАЦИИ И МИГРАЦИОННЫХ ПРОЦЕССОВ

The article touches upon the issue of migration and migration behavior. The phenomenological nature of migration processes in Russia is considered. The point of view is put forward about the phenomenological nature of migration as a category. The author graphically presents the structures of the temporal and non-temoral components of the migration phenomenon. The temporality of the phenomenon is based on the phylo- and ontogeny of the individual. By phylogeny, we mean the historical development of a society in which a potential migrant was formed. Ontogeny refers to the individual aspects of the development of a particular personality. The non-temporality of the phenomenon of migration is manifested in the occurrence of reasons: external, internal and natural-climatic, each of which has its own structure. The external factor is the product of the society in which this individual is. Internal — is largely a product of the phenomenon of the formation of the personality of a particular individual and is characterized by a unique reaction to external factors, one of the variants of which is the decision to migrate (manifestation of migration activity). The reasons for migration are structured, which in themselves are phenomenological in nature (moral, socio-cultural, economic, political and legal).

How Has Covid-19 Affected the Intention to Migrate Via the Backway to Europe and to a Neighboring African Country? Survey Evidence and a Salience Experiment in the Gambia

The COVID-19 pandemic has resulted in border closures in many countries and a sharp reduction in overall international mobility. However, this disruption of legal pathways to migration has raised concerns that potential migrants may turn to irregular migration routes as a substitute. We examine how the pandemic has changed intentions to migrate from The Gambia, the country with the highest pre-pandemic per-capita irregular migration rates in Africa. We use a large-scale panel survey conducted in 2019 and 2020 to compare changes in intentions to migrate to Europe and to neighboring Senegal. We find the pandemic has reduced the intention to migrate to both destinations, with approximately one-third of young males expressing less intention to migrate. The largest reductions in migration intentions are for individuals who were unsure of their intent pre-pandemic, and for poorer individuals who are no longer able to afford the costs of migrating at a time when these costs have increased and their remittance income has fallen. We also introduce the methodology of priming experiments to the study of migration intentions, by randomly varying the salience of the COVID-19 pandemic before eliciting intentions to migrate. We find no impact of this added salience, which appears to be because knowledge of the virus, while imperfect, was already enough to inform migration decisions. Nevertheless, despite these decreases in intentions, the overall desire to migrate the backway to Europe remains high, highlighting the need for legal migration pathways to support migrants and divert them from the risks of backway migration.

Testing Classic Theories of Migration in the Lab

We test the predictions of different classic migration theories by using incentivized laboratory experiments to investigate how potential migrants decide between working in different destinations. We test theories of income maximization, migrant skill-selection, and multidestination choice as we vary migration costs, liquidity constraints, risk, social benefits, and incomplete information. We show the standard income maximization model of migration with selection on observed and unobserved skills leads to a much higher migration rate and more negative skill-selection than is obtained when migration decisions take place under more realistic assumptions. Second, we investigate whether the independence of irrelevant alternatives (IIA) assumption holds. We find it holds for most people when decisions just involve wages, costs, and liquidity constraints. However, once we add a risk of unemployment and incomplete information, IIA no longer holds for about 20 percent of our sample.

The International Transmission of Local Economic Shocks Through Migrant Networks

Using newly validated data on geographic migration networks, we study how labor demand shocks in the United States propagate across the border with Mexico. We show that the large exogenous decline in US employment brought about by the Great Recession affected demographic and economic outcomes in Mexican communities that were highly connected to the most affected markets in the US. In the Mexican locations with strong initial ties to the hardest hit US migrant destinations, return migration increased, emigration decreased, and remittance receipt declined. These changes significantly increased local employment and hours worked, but wages were unaffected. Investment in durable goods and children's education also slowed in these communities. These findings document the effects in Mexico when potential migrants lose access to a strong US labor market, providing insight regarding the potential impacts of stricter US migration restrictions. Institutional subscribers to the NBER working paper series, and residents of developing countries may download this paper without additional charge at www.nber.org.

Say it like Goethe: Language learning facilities abroad and the self-selection of immigrants

Moving to rich countries usually results in substantial increases in income for migrants. However, high migration costs entail that only selected groups of potential migrants actually migrate. The availability of language learning facilities in a country could reduce costs of acquiring destination-specific skills and influence the self-selection of migrants. We combine survey data from immigrant cohorts between 2000 and 2014 with data on the country-year specific presence of Goethe Institutes – a German association promoting language acquisition and culture worldwide. We identify strong positive effects on language skills and relevant labor market-related characteristics of immigrants at arrival. The results are strongest for developing countries where opportunities to acquire foreign language skills are particularly scarce and returns to migration are the highest. Placebo regressions suggest that the effects are not driven by the demand for German language learning facilities.

Poljska između iseljavanja i useljavanja, u kontekstu Crkve

Poljsku se ponajprije smatra izvorom migracija, ali posljednjih godina zemlja je postala i mjesto naseljavanja izbjeglica i migranata, koji osobito dolaze iz Istočne Europe. U ovom smo radu najprije pokušali prikazati današnje iseljavanje iz Poljske, a zatim predstaviti priljev stranaca u tu zemlju. Pokazali smo i posljedice iseljavanja za Poljsku. Zatim smo se fokusirali na učenje Crkve o iseljenicima, a posebno na brigu za njihovo duhovno dobro. Drugi dio članka posvećen je useljenicima u Poljsku. Razmišljanje završava predstavljanjem trenutačnih podataka o broju imigranata i razlozima naseljavanja u Poljskoj. Prikazali smo poljsku državnu politiku s tim u vezi te prešli na stav Rimokatoličke Crkve u pogledu prihvaćanja izbjeglica i migranata. Na temelju provedenih analiza ustanovili smo da je politika poljske države otvorena uglavnom prema pridošlicama iz Istočne Europe, dok potencijalnim migrantima sa Srednjeg Istoka i iz Afrike, poljska Vlada nudi pomoć samo u privremenom naseljavanju. S druge strane, Rimokatolička Crkva u Poljskoj naglašava potrebu otvorenosti prema svim ljudima kojima je pomoć potrebna, premda primjećuje da je potrebno educiranje javnosti o tom pitanju. Rješenja prihvaćena u Poljskoj rezultirala su masovnim priljevom migranata iz istočnoeuropskih zemalja, posebno iz Ukrajine.

Linear and cyclic oligomers in PET, glycol-modified PET and Tritan™ used for food contact materials

ABSTRACT Polyesters are commonly used as food contact materials. During manufacture of polyesters different low molecular mass oligomers (<1000 Da) are formed in the polymer melt. These so-called non-intentionally added substances (NIAS) are potential migrants into foods. In this work, different polyester samples made of polyethylene terephthalate (PET), glycol-modified PET (PETG) and Tritan™ were investigated on their qualitative and quantitative oligomer composition. The analysis of acetonitrile extracts by HPLC-DAD/ESI-MS revealed the presence of about 100 linear (different combinations of hydroxyl-, carboxyl-, methyl ester end groups) and cyclic oligomers depending on the main and co-monomers. The identified oligomers were quantified in different extracts and after reprecipitation by HPLC-DAD using bis-hydroxyethylene terephthalate (BHET) as external standard. The amount of oligomers isolated by reprecipitation ranged between 0.80 and 3.4% in the respective polyester. Cyclic oligomers generally made up 90% or more of the isolated oligomers. Compared to the exhaustive extracts the leaching of oligomers into 20% ethanol (1 h, 60 °C) resulted in a considerable change of the oligomer distribution with a predominant detection of linear oligomers. This suggests linear oligomers to be relevant for migration into aqueous foods despite the dominant amount of extractable cyclic oligomers in polyesters. Analysis of the extractable oligomers of a PET preform and a PETG container and their corresponding raw material pellets revealed that the injection moulding process did not significantly change the amount of cyclic oligomers but did increase the amount of low molecular mass linear oligomers about twofold.

Climate change, in-situ adaptation, and migration decisions of smallholder farmers in central Ethiopia

ABSTRACT Despite a surge of literature on migration and climate change, evidence on the impact of climate change and variability on migration is inconclusive and the roles of in-situ adaptation strategies in migration decisions are unclear. Focusing on smallholder farmers in central Ethiopia, this study investigates the effects of climate variables and the use of in-situ adaptation strategies on households’ migration decisions. The data were analysed using a multi-level discrete-time event-history model. The results show that rainfall increase during the short rainy season [March–May] reduces migration and that of the long rainy season [June–September] increases migration. Early onset of rain during both seasons reduces migration whereas late onset increases migration. The propensity to migrate was low for households using crop diversification but high for those changing crop type and engaging in non-farm activities. The findings suggest that rainfall amount and variability instigate migration for survival among vulnerable farmers through its adverse effect on crop production and food availability. Rainfall-related livelihood problems can be addressed and distress migration can be reduced through agro-technical supports of in-situ adaptation, promoting gainful employment in rural areas, increasing income-earning capacities of potential migrants, and widening pro-poor employment opportunities in urban areas.

Dietary Exposure Estimation to Chemicals Transferred from Milk and Dairy Products Packaging Materials in Spanish Child and Adolescent Population.

Packaging materials are subject to risk assessment since they can transfer their components to the food, and they may constitute a risk for the consumers’ health. Therefore, estimating the exposure to chemicals migrating from packaging is required. In this study, a novel approach based on a total diet study (TDS)-like investigation to evaluate the exposure to chemicals transferred from the packaging was presented. The proposed methodology involved a non-targeted gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC-MS) method to identify potential migrants and the determination of the migrants in composite food samples. The method was applied to evaluate the dietary exposure to chemicals from food packaging materials used for milk and dairy products in the Spanish child and adolescent populations. Several migrants identified in packaging materials were selected to determine their concentration in composite food samples. These chemicals included diethyl phthalate (DEP), diisobutyl phthalate (DIBP), dibutyl phthalate (DBP), bis(2ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), benzophenone (BP), 1,3-diphenylpropane (1,3-DPP), and bis(2-ethylhexyl) terephthalate (DEHT). The method exhibited a good sensitivity (limit of detection, LOD ≤ 0.05 µg/g) and a satisfactory recovery (78.4-124%). Finally, the exposure was estimated using the Spanish national dietary survey ENALIA. Phthalates DBP and DEHP showed the highest mean exposure, ranging from 2.42 (10–17 years)–4.40 (12–35 months) and 1.35 (10–17 years)–4.07 (12–35 months) µg/kg bw/day for DBP and DEHP, respectively.

Do potential migrants internalize migrant rights in OECD host societies?

AbstractThis paper analyzes how countries’ provision of migrant rights affects potential migrants’ destination choice. Combining data on bilateral migration desires from over 140 origin countries and data on migrant rights in 38 mainly OECD destination countries over the period 2007–2014, we find that potential migrants tend to favour destinations that are more open to the inclusion of immigrants into their society. In particular, better access to and conditions on the labour market as well as access to nationality and to permanent residency significantly increase the perceived attractiveness of a destination country. These results are robust across different specifications and hold for subsamples of origin countries as well as of destinations. Moreover, some results vary across types of respondents. Educational opportunities for migrants, for instance, affect the migration desires of individuals aged 15 to 24, but less so of individuals in other age groups.

Climate migration and health system preparedness in the United States

ABSTRACT Every country will have to prepare for climate change. Despite obvious risks to national security in terms of safety, food, and infrastructure as well as impending economic losses, countries like the United States (US) have declined to pursue meaningful federal action. The human impact of climate change – specifically climate migration and its health implications – has been largely neglected at a policy level. Yet climate migration is predicted to have tremendous consequences for people in the next 30 years and beyond, and with it comes a host of difficulties – political, cultural, economic, and structural. Preparedness will be of great importance to potential migrants and how they adapt to their receiving (host) locations. Health systems are one of the most significant institutions impacting long-term migration and these systems’ strengths and weaknesses will determine the integration and well-being of migrants for years to come. A critical analysis of existing literature exposes that there is little current research on health system preparedness as it relates to climate migration, especially in the US. To help address this gap, this paper focuses on how the American health system, already fraught with limitations, can prepare for the expected increase in mostly internal migrants in the face of climate change. Key policy insights Climate migration in the US will pose huge challenges for health systems because of the American health system’s unique, pre-existing weaknesses. To prepare for climate migration, federal, state, local, tribal, and territorial governments should focus on adopting a universal healthcare policy, shifting primary care tasks away from physicians and towards other qualified and more ubiquitous professionals, and investing in telemedicine, retail clinics, and a national electronic health record system. A ‘health in all policies’ approach, which applies a health lens to legislation, needs to be applied in the context of health system strengthening for climate migration since countless environmental determinants of health and infrastructural decisions shape the vulnerability of communities.

Social Risks of International Labour Migration in the Context of Global Challenges

The results of the study of migration risks of labor migrants from Ukraine are presented in this article. The purpose of the study is to find out the differences in the perception of obstacles and risks that arise in the process of work abroad among experienced and potential labour migrants from Ukraine within the cognitive, behavioural, and emotional components of their intercultural competence. The study has been implemented from the standpoint of a set of analytical tools, including: the concept of the advantages of replacing the “risk/reliability” scheme with the “risk/hazard” scheme; views of risk and chance as interrelated variables that motivate people to try to explore the world and overcome obstacles; the concept of “triple individualization” in a risk society. It has been found that social risks are hidden in the imbalance of intercultural competence of experienced labor migrants and are not realized by potential labor migrants. It has been proven that the greatest social danger for labor migrants from Ukraine is the loss of components of competence and initiative. It has been established that the key points of the comparative analysis of social risks faced by labor migrants from Ukraine open up prospects for improving the methodology for studying social (and socio-cultural, in particular) risks.

Трудовая миграция в России в период коронавирусной пандемии

Введение карантинных мер в связи с пандемией коронавируса сопровождалось перекрытием трансграничных коммуникаций и ограничением деятельности предприятий в большинстве отраслей экономики. Трудовые мигранты и члены их семей, пребывающие на территории России, оказались в сложном положении. Сокращение занятости в первую очередь в тех сферах, где работают мигранты, сделало иностранных граждан одной из наиболее уязвимых социальных групп. Первый пласт вопросов, рассматриваемых в статье, связан с оценкой ситуации, в которой оказались мигранты, находящиеся в России. В каких видах экономической активности сокращение занятости стало особенно болезненным для мигрантов? Каково их материальное положение? Насколько они готовы покинуть Россию в случае восстановления транспортных коммуникаций? Каковы их ближайшие и отдаленные планы, связанные с трудовой деятельностью и жизнью в России? Во втором фокусе исследования находятся потенциальные мигранты, которые не смогли въехать в Россию после разрыва международных транспортных связей. Каково их экономическое положение на родине? Как быстро они собираются выехать в Россию в случае снятия ограничений на международные поездки? Каковы их краткосрочные и долгосрочные планы, связанные с пребыванием в России? Поиску ответов на эти вопросы посвящена настоящая статья, базирующаяся на онлайн-опросе 2695 иностранных граждан (в том числе 1304 мигрантов, находящихся на территории России, и 1391 – за ее пределами), а также телефонном опросе 300 трудовых мигрантов в Московском мегаполисе, проведенных в первой половине июня 2020 г.

Estimation of Dietary Exposure to Contaminants Transferred from the Packaging in Fatty Dry Foods Based on Cereals.

Food packaging has received special attention from the food safety standpoint since it could be a potential source of contamination through the migration of chemical substances from the packaging material into food. The assessment of the exposure through the diet to these contaminants from food packaging is necessary. In this work, an estimation of dietary exposure of the young Spanish population (1–17 years) to target chemicals from packaging for fatty dried foods based on cereals was assessed. For this purpose, a gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC–MS) method was developed for screening of volatile and semivolatile compounds, potential migrants from the packaging. Then, this technique was used to quantify 8 target analytes, which were previously identified in the packaging (including phthalates, acetyl tributyl citrate (ATBC), butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) and octocrylene), in composite food samples of fatty cereals prepared according to the consumption data for different age groups. Among the phthalates, exposure to diethyl phthalate (DEP) was the highest for the three groups considered (0.0761–0.545 µg/kg body weight/day), followed by bis(2-ethylhxyl)phathalate (DEHP), while the lowest mean intake was found for di-n-octyl phathalate (DNOP; 0.00463–0.0209 µg/kg body weight/day). The estimated dietary exposures did not exceed for any of the analytes the corresponding established tolerable daily intakes.

Migration policy towards skilled labor in the Russian Federation

The article analyzes the policy of the Russian Federation towards skilled foreign labor in retrospect — from the moment of the collapse of the USSR to the present day. It is shown that throughout the recent history of law-making and in practice, labor migrants have been considered mainly as a temporary phenomenon despite the country’s need for qualified personnel who could become a part of its resident population. The article attempts to systematize existing channels of skilled migration and provides main principles of their operation. It is shown that, with the exception of a program aimed at the so-called highly skilled specialists (HSS), other forms of attracting foreign workers do not offer a package of conditions that can interest potential migrants in moving to Russia. The system of attracting HSS has not yet shown its effectiveness and is mainly used for simplified temporary access to the Russian labor market. The State Program of assistance to the resettlement of compatriots, formally intended for migrants with ethnic and cultural affinity to the population of Russia, actually uses the principles of selection of skilled labor migrants. Only at the end of 2019, steps were taken that made it easier for graduates of Russian universities and technical schools, as well as specialists with professions in demand, to obtain a residence permit. However, these steps look half-hearted. Comparing the Russian experience with the practice of some foreign countries gives grounds for thinking about what tools and approaches can improve the effectiveness of the Russian policy towards qualified migrants and arouse their interest in moving to our country for permanent residence.

Targeted and untargeted gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis of honey samples for determination of migrants from plastic packages

Plastic food packages usually contain additives which may migrate from the package into the food and then be ingested by the consumer, representing a risk for their health. In this study, targeted and untargeted analysis by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC–MS) is proposed to monitor any contaminants of this type in honey. The application of dispersive liquid–liquid microextraction (DLLME) as a preconcentration technique allowed very low detection limits to be reached for all the substances. Fifteen target compounds, including styrene, phthalates, fatty acids, alkylphenols and bisphenol A, were quantified. Untargeted analyses were also carried out, allowing other migrants in the honey samples to be identified, such as two phthalates, four acids, three esters, one aldehyde, one hydrocarbon and two alkyl phenol compounds. The proposed method was seen to be a useful approach for the quantification and identification of potential migrants from plastics in challenging samples such as honey.

Exploration of Work Attributes in the Synergy of Institutions to Improve the Quid Pro Quo of Tourism

Importance Performance analysis (IPA) provides a useful facility to test the institutional synergy concept among tourism stakeholders. This research has a purpose to explore the perception of tourism stakeholders concerning the attributes in the value of importance and performance in tourism institutions to increase quid pro quo for the community. This study was conducted in sub-districts that have potential migrant or Indonesian Migrant Worker populations in Malang District. Samples of this research are tourism stakeholders who manage tourist attraction in productive migrant villages. They are tourism activist groups as tourism actors in the community, village government work units, and Perusahaan Daerah Jasa Yasa (Jasa Yasa Regional Company) as the manager of the tourism. The analytical tool used to measure the level of performance and importance in the synergy attributes is the Importance Performance analysis (IPA). The results of this study show the attributes of synergy between tourism stakeholder institutions have the following distribution: Environmental Changes attribute falls in Quadrant I; attributes of Continuous Coordination, Simultaneous Responsibility, Effective Communication, &amp; Simultaneous Supervision fall in Quadrant II; Simultaneous Policy and Direct Relationship attributes fall in Quadrant III; and Obvious Purpose attributes falls in Quadrant IV.

Exploring Policy Options in Regulating Rural\u2013Urban Migration with a Bayesian Network: A Case Study in Kazakhstan

Despite the benefits associated with the free movement of people, governments often try to regulate urban immigration by constraining the agency of potential rural out-migrants in moving to cities and/or in expanding their agency to enable them to stay put. We apply an institutional framework centring on push–pull and retain–repel factors to migration intentions of potential migrants in northern Kazakhstan. We model the effects of these factors on migration intentions with Bayesian Networks and expand the baseline model with three policy scenarios. The results suggest that the effects of policies constraining urban in-migration, e.g. limiting access to affordable housing, are attenuated by social networks and reverse remittances. The supply of accessible and appropriate information on possible income and true housing costs in urban areas presents a promising road to reduce intentions of rural out-migration. Better schools and decentralised tertiary education can also reduce the migration intentions of rural residents.

Chemical Migration from Beverage Packaging Materials—A Review

The packaging of a beverage is an essential element for customer convenience and the preservation of beverage quality. On the other hand, chemical compounds present in the packaging materials, either intentionally added or non-intentionally, may be transferred to the food. With a huge variety of materials used in the production, beverage packaging requires safety assessments with respect to the migration of packaging compounds into the filled beverages. The present article deals with potential migrants from different materials for beverage packaging, including PET bottles, glass bottles, metal cans and cardboard multilayers. The list of migrants comprises monomers and additives, oligomers or degradation products. The article presents a review on scientific literature and summarizes European food regulatory requirements. The review shows no evidence of critical substances migrating from packaging into beverages. Testing the migration in real beverages during and at the end of the shelf life shows compliance with the specific migration limits. Accelerated testing using food simulants, however, shows higher migration in some cases, especially at high temperatures in ethanolic simulants. For some migrants, more realistic testing conditions should be applied in order to show compliance with their specific migration limits.

The role of loyalty in migration intentions: theory and evidence from the EU

Free movement of persons is one of the fundamental values and achievements of the European Union, however, intentions towards mobility vary across and within the member states. Economic literature has remarkable theories to explain migration flows and individual selection factors of potential migrants, but it ignores major achievements of other social sciences. This paper builds an economic framework to incorporate the Hirschmanian concept of loyalty into the microeconomic (human capital) model of international migration by using interdependent preferences. Hirschman assumes that even after exiting, loyal people care about their previous communities, thus it imposes a certain psychological ‘exit tax’ on them. Based on this concept, it is hypothesized that people with altruistic motives have weaker intentions to migrate, so the presence of loyalty towards others makes international migration less likely, conveying that loyalty towards local or national community may be responsible for moderate labor mobility among EU member states. Results show that attachment to one's country makes one's intention to move abroad in the near future less likely, while loyalty towards one's city has more moderate impact on their intentions.