Potential Feedstock For Biodiesel Production Research Articles

Isolation of High-Lipid Tetraselmis suecica Strains Following Repeated UV-C Mutagenesis, FACS, and High-Throughput Growth Selection

Mutagenesis and selection of microalgae can be used for accelerated breeding of elite strains, providing a significant advantage over genetic engineering as prior biochemical and genetic information is not required. Ultraviolet (UV)-C-induced mutagenesis combined with fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) and microtiter plate reader cell density screening was used to produce Tetraselmis suecica strains with increased lipid contents without compromising on cell growth. After five rounds of mutation-selection, two dosages of UV-C (50 and >98 % lethality) yielded two improved strains (M5 and M24) that produced significantly more neutral lipids (increases of 114 and 123 %, respectively). This study highlights that repeated UV-C mutagenesis and high-throughput selection for cell growth can be a viable combined approach to improve lipid productivity in microalgae. These maybe used as elite strains for future breeding programs and as potential feedstock for biodiesel production.

Current Status and Outlook in the Application of Microalgae in Biodiesel Production and Environmental Protection

Microalgae have been currently recognized as one group of the most potential feedstocks for biodiesel production due to high productivity potential, efficient biosynthesis of lipids and less competition with food production. Moreover, utilization of microalgae with environmental purposes (CO2 fixation, NOX and wastewater treatment) and biorefinery have been reported. However, there are still challenges that need to be addressed to ensure stable large-scale production with positive net energy balance. This review gives an overview of the current status of the application of microalgae in biodiesel production and environmental protection. The practical problems not only facing the microalgae biodiesel production but also associated with microalgae application for environmental pollution control, in particular biological fixation of greenhouse gas (CO2 and NOX) and wastewater treatment are described in detail. Notably, the synergistic combination of various applications (e.g. food, medicine, wastewater treatment and flue gas treatment) with biodiesel production could enhance the sustainability and economics of the algal biodiesel production system.

Recycling biodiesel-derived glycerol by the oleaginous yeast Rhodosporidium toruloides Y4 through the two-stage lipid production process

Direct utilization of crude glycerol, a major byproduct in biodiesel industry, becomes imperative, because its production has outpaced the demand recently. We demonstrated that the oleaginous yeast Rhodosporidium toruloides Y4 had a great capacity to convert glycerol into lipids with high yield using the two-stage production process. Significantly higher cell mass and lipid yield were observed when the media were made with synthetic crude glycerol than pure glycerol. The process achieved a lipid yield of 0.22gg−1 glycerol, which was comparable with the lipid yield using glucose as the substrate. Lipid samples showed similar fatty acid compositional profiles to those of vegetable oils, suggesting that such microbial lipids were potential feedstock for biodiesel production. Our data provided an attractive route to integrate biodiesel production with microbial lipid technology for better resource efficiency and economical viability.

Lipid accumulation by pelletized culture of Mucor circinelloides on corn stover hydrolysate.

Microbial oil accumulated by fungal cells is a potential feedstock for biodiesel production, and lignocellulosic materials can serve as the carbon source to support the fungal growth. The dilute acid pretreatment of corn stover can effectively break down its lignin structure, and this process generates a hydrolysate containing mostly xylose at very dilute concentration and numerous by-products that may significantly inhibit the cell growth. This study utilized corn stover hydrolysate as the culture media for the growth of Mucor circinelloides. The results showed that Mucor cells formed pellets during the cell growth, which facilitates the cell harvest from dilute solution. The results also showed that the inhibitory effect of furfural, 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF), and acetic acid could be avoided if their concentration was low. In fact, all these by-products may be assimilated as carbon sources for the fungal growth. The results proved the feasibility to reuse the cultural broth water for acid pretreatment and then use for subsequent cell cultivation. The results will have a direct impact on the overall water usage of the process.

Properties and use of Moringa oleifera biodiesel and diesel fuel blends in a multi-cylinder diesel engine

Researchers have recently attempted to discover alternative energy sources that are accessible, technically viable, economically feasible, and environmentally acceptable. This study aims to evaluate the physico-chemical properties of Moringa oleifera biodiesel and its 10% and 20% by-volume blends (B10 and B20) in comparison with diesel fuel (B0). The performance and emission of M. oleifera biodiesel and its blends in a multi-cylinder diesel engine were determined at various speeds and full load conditions. The properties of M. oleifera biodiesel and its blends complied with ASTM D6751 standards. Over the entire range of speeds, B10 and B20 fuels reduced brake power and increased brake specific fuel consumption compared with B0. In engine emissions, B10 and B20 fuels reduced carbon monoxide emission by 10.60% and 22.93% as well as hydrocarbon emission by 9.21% and 23.68%, but slightly increased nitric oxide emission by 8.46% and 18.56%, respectively, compared with B0. Therefore, M. oleifera is a potential feedstock for biodiesel production, and its blends B10 and B20 can be used as diesel fuel substitutes.

Sweet almond (Prunus amygdalus “dulcis”) seeds as a potential feedstock for Nigerian Biodiesel Automotive Project

This work presents sweet almond (Prunus amygdalus “dulcis”) seed oil (SASO) as a non-conventional feedstock for the preparation of biodiesel in Nigeria, rather than the traditional oils of palm, groundnut and palm kernel. SASO was extracted via the solvent method, pretreated to reduce the acid value, and transesterified using methanol (solvent) and sodium hydroxide (catalyst). The oil content and acid value of SASO were 51.45 ± 3.92% and 1.07 mg KOH/g, respectively. The fatty acid composition of SASO reveals the predominance of oleic acid (69.7%), linoleic acid (18.2%) and palmitic acid (9.3%). Specific fuel properties of sweet almond oil methyl esters (SAOME) were determined using standard test methods and were found to satisfy both EN 14214 and ASTM D6751 biodiesel standards; the cold flow properties were particularly outstanding (cloud point; -3oC and pour point; -9oC). SASO appears to offer great promise as a potential feedstock for biodiesel production in Nigeria.

Efficacy of drying and cell disruption techniques on lipid recovery from microalgae for biodiesel production

Downstream processing of microalgal biomass presents a significant challenge to large scale biodiesel production. Scenedesmus sp. which is known to be a potential feedstock for biodiesel production was cultivated in an open circular pond. The biomass productivity peaked at day 21 with a yield of 1.16gL−1. Biomass was harvested by gravitational settling followed by centrifugation. Harvested biomass was dried using the freeze drying, oven drying and sun drying processes followed by lipid extraction which yielded 29.65%, 28.63% and 28.33% lipidg−1 DCW (dry cell weight) respectively. Lipids were extracted from microalgal biomass dried by selected drying techniques using microwave and sonication for cell disruption in the presence of mixture of chloroform and ethanol (1:1). Microwave assisted extraction of sun dried biomass yielded 28.33% lipidg−1 DCW, as compared to 18.9% lipidg−1 DCW achieved by sonication assisted extraction. The saponification and acid values of the lipid obtained from Scenedesmus sp. dried by selected drying techniques showed high saponification and acid value indicating presence of high free fatty acid content. Effect of different drying and cell disruption technique on fatty acid profile of lipids extracted from Scenedesmus sp. biomass was also studied. These values indicate promising potential of the oil produced for conversion into biodiesel.

Optimization of biodiesel production and engine performance from high free fatty acid Calophyllum inophyllum oil in CI diesel engine

In the present study, crude Calophyllum inophyllum oil (CCIO) has been evaluated as a potential feedstock for biodiesel production. C.inophyllum oil has high acid value which is 59.30mg KOH/g. Therefore, the degumming, esterification, neutralization and transesterification process are carried out to reduce the acid value to 0.34mg KOH/g. The optimum yield was obtained at 9:1 methanol to oil ratio with 1wt.%. NaOH catalyst at 50°C for 2h. On the other hand, the C.inophyllum biodiesel properties fulfilled the specification of ASTM D6751 and EN 14214 biodiesel standards. After that, the C.inophyllum biodiesel diesel blends were tested to evaluate the engine performance and emission characteristic. The performance and emission of 10% C.inophyllum biodiesel blends (CIB10) give a satisfactory result in diesel engines as the brake thermal increase 2.30% and fuel consumption decrease 3.06% compared to diesel. Besides, CIB10 reduces CO and smoke opacity compared to diesel. In short, C.inophyllum biodiesel can become an alternative fuel in the future.

Evaluation of Indian milkweed (Calotropis gigantea) seed oil as alternative feedstock for biodiesel

Calotropis gigantea (Indian milkweed) is a common plant in Asia that grows as a weed on open waste ground. Flowering and fruiting take place throughout the year. In this study, Indian milkweed oil was evaluated as a potential feedstock for biodiesel production. The oil was extracted from Indian milkweed seeds with hexane in a Soxhlet apparatus. The seeds were found to contain 33.3wt% oil. The extracted oil was analyzed for the fatty acid profile and oil properties. Several previously unreported minor fatty acids were identified. Because the free fatty acid content in the oil was 27.5wt%, acid-catalyzed esterification was conducted to esterify free fatty acids and alkali-catalyzed transesterification was performed to produce biodiesel. The triglyceride content, diglyceride content, monoglyceride content, free glycerol, methanol, ester content, carbon residue, acid value, oxidation stability, tocopherol, water content, kinematic viscosity, density, cloud point and flash point of the prepared biodiesel were determined. With the exception of oxidation stability, all fuel properties conformed to four standards (Philippine National Standard PNS2020:2003, Japanese Automotive Standards Organization JASO M360, European Standard EN 14214, American Society for Testing Materials ASTM D6751). However, it was found that this biodiesel can be only used in tropical countries due to the poor cold flow properties.

Fresh water green microalga Scenedesmus abundans: A potential feedstock for high quality biodiesel production

Present investigation studied the potential of fresh water green microalga Scenedesmus abundans as a feedstock for biodiesel production. To study the biomass and lipid yield, the culture was grown in BBM, Modified CHU-13 and BG-11 medium. Among the tested nitrogen concentration using Modified CHU-13 medium, the highest biomass and lipid yield of 1.113±0.05g/L and 489±23mg/L respectively was found in the culture medium with 0.32g/L of nitrogen (KNO3). Different lipid extraction as well as transesterification methods were also tested. Fatty acid profile of alga grown in large scale indigenous made photobioreactor has shown abundance of fatty acids with carbon chain length of C16 and C18. Various biodiesel properties such as cetane number, iodine value and saponification value were found to be in accordance with Brazilian National Petroleum Agency (ANP255) and European biodiesel standard EN14214 which makes S. abundans as a potential feedstock for biodiesel production.

Potential of Waste Vegetable Oil for Biodiesel in Nigeria

Based on the alarming level of the problems associated with non -renewable energy sources, the critical effects of global warming and the need to curb environmental pollutions, there is now a shift of emphasis on serene renewable energy sources. Waste Vegetable Oil which refers to vegetable oil that has been used in food production and is no longer viable for its intended us e is a potential feedstock for biodiesel production. The cost of production of biodiesel is high compared to conventional diesel fuel. However, it is cheaper to produce biodiesel from waste vegetable oil than pure vegetable oil. The conversion of waste vegetable oil to biodiesel using the acid esterification process followed by alkali transesterification in the laboratory and the subsequent determination of physicochemical properties of about four different blends of the produced biodiesel are undertaken inthis study. TheB100, having a percentage yield of about 95% with a density of 0.89 g/cm

Comparative evaluation of performance and emission characteristics of Moringa oleifera and Palm oil based biodiesel in a diesel engine

Biodiesels, which are made from various crops, as well as animal fat, are renewable, bio-degradable, and non-toxic and are eco-friendly compared with fossil fuels. Currently, there are more than 350 oil-bearing crops identified as potential sources for biodiesel production. In this study, the potential of biodiesel obtained from a non-edible oil source (Moringa oleifera) was explored and compared with that of palm biodiesel and diesel fuel. The physico-chemical properties of M. oleifera methyl ester were determined, and the properties of 5% and 10% (by volume) blends thereof (MB5 and MB10, respectively) were compared with those of palm-oil blends (PB5 and PB10) and diesel fuel (B0). The performance of these fuels was assessed in a multi-cylinder diesel engine at various engine speeds and under the full-load condition whereas emissions were assessed under the both full-load and half load condition. The properties of palm and M. oleifera biodiesels and their blends meet the ASTM D6751 and EN 14214 standards. Engine performance test results indicated that the PB5 and the MB5 fuels produced slightly lower brake powers and higher brake specific fuel consumption values compared to diesel fuel over the entire range of speeds examined. Engine emission results indicated that the PB5, MB5, PB10 and MB10 fuels reduced the average emissions of carbon monoxide by 13.17%, 5.37%, 17.36%, and 10.60%, respectively, and reduced those of hydrocarbons by 14.47%, 3.94%, 18.42%, and 9.21%, respectively. However, the PB5, MB5, PB10, and MB10 fuels slightly increased nitric oxide emissions by 1.96%, 3.99%, 3.38%, and 8.46%, respectively, and increased carbon dioxide emissions by 5.60%, 2.25%, 11.73%, and 4.96%, respectively, compared to the emissions induced by B0. M. oleifera oil is a potential feedstock for biodiesel production, and the performance of MB5 and MB10 biodiesel is comparable to that of PB5 and PB10 biodiesel and diesel fuel. Because the MB5 and MB10 fuels produce lower exhaust emissions than diesel fuel, these fuels can replace diesel fuel in unmodified engines to reduce the global energy demand and exhaust emissions to the environment.

Characterization of Garcinia Mangostana Linn. Seeds as Potential Feedstocks for Biodiesel Production

Characterization of Garcinia Mangostana Linn. Seeds as Potential Feedstocks for Biodiesel Production

Microwave Assisted Biodiesel Production from Trap Grease

Methyl and ethyl esters were prepared from lauric acid under conventional heating and microwave irradiation to determine the best fatty acid esterification conditions. These conditions were then applied in the conversion of trap grease (brown grease) to biodiesel. The trap grease is a potential feedstock for biodiesel production, due to its low cost and easy esterification. In this paper, trap grease catalytic esterification with methanol was performed under conventional heating and microwave irradiation. It was possible to obtain high conversions with conventional heating, but under microwave heating, the esterification reaction equilibrium was attained much faster. The trap grease biodiesel obtained from microwave assisted reactions showed a high conversion (96%) even at mild reaction conditions (trap grease:methanol molar ratio 1:6, 1.0% H2SO4, 393 K, 10 minutes). While these initial experiments were performed in a small-scale laboratory unit, the procedure could be easily scaled-up to a commercial continuous process.

In Situ Transesterification of Wet Activated Sludge under Subcritical Conditions

Commercial production of biodiesel uses refined vegetable as the feedstock with base as the catalyst. However, pure vegetable oil contributes up to 80% of the overall biodiesel production cost. Activated sludge is a rich source of lipid and a potential feedstock for biodiesel production. It was estimated that drying and oil extraction constitutes more than 50% of the cost of biodiesel production from wet activated sludge. In this study, wet activated sludge was directly used as the feedstock to react with methanol under subcritical water condition. At 250°C and a methanol to wet sludge ratio of 3.0 mL/g, a Fatty Acid Methyl Ester (FAME) yield of 33% can be achieved in 4 h. Acetic acid was employed as the catalyst to decrease the amount of methanol to 2.25 mL/g and reaction time to 1 h that were required to reach the same FAME yield (33%). This process can be applied to maximize biodiesel conversion of feedstock with high FFA and moisture contents.

Marine Oils as Potential Feedstock for Biodiesel Production: Physicochemical Characterization

Physico-chemical characteristics of four crude marine oils including farmed salmon, seal, cod liver and wild salmon are compared and interpreted with regard to their suitability as biodiesel feedstock. The physico-chemical properties including specific gravity, pH, ash content, acid value, iodine value, saponification value, p-anisidine value, peroxide value, TOTOX value, free fatty acid, flash point, kinematic viscosity, refractive index, lipid classes and fatty acid classification of all four marine oils were evaluated. The characterized marine oils were pale yellow to orange in color and stable in the liquid state at room temperature. The pH (6.5-6.8) values of all oils were neutral. The specific gravity (0.921-0.924 g/cm3), water content (179-325 ppm), ash content (0.0027-0.00455%), free fatty acids (0.03-1.23%), acid value (0.057-0.771 mg KOH/g), peroxide value (5.13-9.17 meq O2/kg oil) and p-anisidine value (3.36-9.67) of all oils were within recommended limits except for higher water content in the seal oil (689 ppm), higher acid value in farmed salmon (2.441 mg KOH/g) and seal oil (0.958 mg KOH/g) and higher iodine value (116-139.15 g I2/100 g). A drying step needs to be implemented for the removal of water as it can lead to corrosion of internal combustion engine components. Due to higher iodine values, all the oils were drying oils except farmed salmon oil which was semidrying oil and susceptible to become rancid which causes reduction of pour point of biodiesel produced in the absence of antioxidant. All four marine oils were more likely to polymerize in the heat of the engine if used directly without trans-esterification. Flash point of all marine oils were above 200°C so, there is no risk of fire outbreaks in case of accidents. Due to higher triacylglycerol (81-93%) content, all the marine oils are suitable as a feedstock for biodiesel production via trans-esterification. Cod liver (14.72%) and wild salmon oil (9.92%) were rich in polar lipids while the farmed salmon (2.43%) and wild salmon (2.43%) were low in polar lipids. The phospholipids (1.21-1.67%) were higher than the recommended limit of ≤10 ppm so degumming process is required prior to biodiesel production. All the marine oils in this study have a high degree of unsaturation and polyunsaturated fatty acids and therefore the biodiesel produced from all oils will have less oxidation stability and result in the precipitation of the biodiesel components in a fuel feeding system or combustion chamber. Therefore, it is essential to stabilize the oil using an antioxidant immediately after extraction/production to obtain a high quality biofuel.

Biodiesel Production from Leather Industry Wastes as an Alternative Feedstock and its Use in Diesel Engines

Waste leather fat is produced by the leather industry in fleshing processing and discarded as waste. These wastes can be used as a potential feedstock for biodiesel production due to their considerable fat content. In this work, raw fleshing oil which is a fat-originated waste of the leather industry was transesterified using methanol in the presence of an alkali catalyst to obtain biodiesel. The obtained biodiesel was then used in a four-stroke and direct injection diesel engine to evaluate the biodiesel behavior as an alternative diesel fuel, at a constant speed under variable load conditions. Blends [20 and 50% (v/v)] of biodiesel with diesel reference fuel were tested too. The emissions test results compared with diesel reference fuel showed that diesel engine fueled by biodiesel emitted significantly lower opacity and gaseous emissions than the same engine fueled by diesel reference fuel, and with very similar performance. The obtained data indicated that biodiesel from leather industry wastes is promising as an alternative fuel for diesel engines, and can be used to substitute diesel fuel in terms of performance and emission parameters without any engine modification.

Performance and emission analysis of Jatropha curcas and Moringa oleifera methyl ester fuel blends in a multi-cylinder diesel engine

Research on alternative fuels is increasing due to environmental concerns and diminishing fossil fuel reserves. Biodiesel is one of the best renewable replacements for petroleum-based fuels. This paper examines the potential of biodiesel obtained from Jatropha curcas and Moringa oleifera oils. The physico-chemical properties of J. curcas and M. oleifera methyl esters were presented, and their 10% by volume blends (JB10 and MB10) were compared with diesel fuel (B0). The performance of these fuels and their emissions were assessed in a fully loaded multi-cylinder diesel engine at various engine speeds. The properties of J. curcas and M. oleifera biodiesels and their blends agreed with ASTM D6751 and EN 14214 standards. Engine performance test results indicated that the JB10 and the MB10 fuels produced slightly lower brake powers and higher brake specific fuel consumption values compared to diesel fuel over the entire range of speeds. Engine emission results indicated that the JB10 and MB10 fuels reduced the average emissions of carbon monoxide by 14 and 11%, respectively; and hydrocarbons by 16 and 12%, respectively. However, the JB10 and MB10 fuels slightly increased nitrous oxides emissions by 7 and 9%, respectively, and carbon dioxide by 7 and 5%, respectively compared to B0. In conclusion, J. curcas and M. oleifera are potential feedstock for biodiesel production, and the JB10 and MB10 blends can replace diesel fuel without modifying engines to produce cleaner exhaust emissions.

Design, Construction and Evaluation of a Smart Agricultural Harvester

The cost of picking the agriculture product is probably the major factor in determining whether or not there will be an economically successful season for most farmers. Hand harvesting has been costly, whereby, the cost of production constitute up to 80% of the total cost. Jatropha curcas has been considered as a potential feedstock for biodiesel production. Today, Jatropha curcas have been widely planted for harvesting its fruits for biodiesel production. Unfortunately, until now, the cost of jatropha production for biodiesel production is still high, especially labor costs for harvesting. The aim of the present study was to design, construct and evaluate a portable jatropha harvester to reduce dependence on human labor in the harvesting process. This smart harvester was developed by devising a simple crank powered by a hand drill 12 volt (V) that converts the rotary motion to linear motion at a push rod. To evaluate the machine performance, a factorial experiment with randomized complete randomized design (RCBD) in ten replications was conducted, the factors being shaking frequency (180, 250 and 300 rpm) and shaking duration (5, 10 and 15 seconds). To calculate the ratio of fruit detachment force (F) to its weight (W), appropriate measurements were made. Also, the geometric mean diameter of the fruits was determined at different stages of maturity. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) and comparison of means by Duncan's multiple range test (DMRT) showed that the effects of shaking frequency and shaking time on fruit detachment were greatly significant. The number of fruits detached increased by increasing the shaking frequency. Maximum number of fruits detachment was obtained by applying 300 rpm shaking frequency. Also the number of fruits detached increased by increasing the shaking duration.

A Two-step Catalytic Production of Biodiesel from Waste Cooking Oil

Waste cooking oil (WCO) was used as a potential feedstock for biodiesel production. High levels of free fatty acids (9.85% w/w) in WCO made it an undesirable substrate for direct transesterification reaction. To solve this issue, a two-step process was implemented in this research. Firstly, esterification reaction was performed in presence of sulfuric acid as a common acid catalyst to reduce the amount of FFA to less than 1.5% w/w. The triglycerides (TGs) in WCO were transesterified with methanol catalyzed by potassium hydroxide in the second step of reaction. Several effective parameters were evaluated in terms of reaction temperature (323-363 K), reaction time (0.5-3 h) and catalyst concentration (0-5.52% w/w). The optimum reaction conditions were defined as the reaction temperature of 355 K, reaction time of 3 h and catalyst concentration of 3.68~ 4% w/w, in which maximum FFA conversion of 87 wt% was obtained. The biodiesel synthesis condition in the second stage was defined as the reaction temperature of 338 K, methanol/ WCO molar ratio of 6:1, KOH concentration of 1% w/w and reaction time of 90 min; under these conditions, maximum triglyceride (TG) conversion of 96.66 wt% was obtained.