Potential Feedstock For Biodiesel Production Research Articles

Bio-catalytic transesterification of mustard oil for biodiesel production

The depletion of non-renewable fossil fuels and a surge in their prices have led researchers to seek alternative, renewable energy sources; among them, biodiesel is a good option, especially in the ever-growing global transport sector. Mustard oil is a potential feedstock for biodiesel production, and because it is non-edible it avoids the food versus fuel feud. Biocatalytic transesterification of mustard oil for biodiesel production makes this process cost efficient, environmentally friendly and sustainable. In the current study, Pseudomanas aeruginosa Q8 KX12304-mediated transesterification of mustard oil was carried out. The parameters for the transesterification reaction were statistically optimized using Plackett–Burman and central composite design. The highest biodiesel volumetric yield obtained was 100% at optimized conditions. The quality of biodiesel was confirmed using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GCMS) and the produced biodiesel was found to meet the quality standards specified by American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) and EU-14103. The fatty acid methyl ester contents of the biodiesel produced were erucic acid methyl esters (48.2%), palmitic acid methyl esters (11.8%), oleic acid methyl esters (10.6%), linolenic acid methyl esters (10.3%), linoleic acid methyl esters (9.1%) and stearic acid methyl esters (8%). To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to report transesterification of mustard oil via biocatalysis.

Microbial lipids from cellulolytic oleaginous fungus Penicillium citrinum PKB20 as a potential feedstock for biodiesel production

Microbial lipids derived from oleaginous fungi are considered as an alternative feedstock for biodiesel production. We attempt to isolate a cellulolytic oleaginous fungi as a potential feedstock for biodiesel production. The fungus was identified by 5.8 S-ITS rRNA gene sequencing. The extracellular enzyme activities were recorded after every 24 h for 7 days. Nile red staining and fluorescence microscopy was used to visualise the lipid bodies within the fungal hyphae. A renewable heterogeneous base catalyst derived from Musa balbisiana cola peels was used for the transesterification of Penicillium citrinum PKB20 derived oil into biodiesel. GC-MS analysis was used to analyse the fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) profile of the transesterified lipids. Penicillium citrinum PKB20 was isolated from detritus rich soil of Assam, India. The endoglucanase, xylanase and β-glucosidase enzyme activities were found to be 292.83 ± 0.29, 111.72 ± 0.45 and 6.54 ± 0.13 U/mg respectively. The specific enzyme activity for extracellular lipase was found to be 3.12 ± 0.16 U/mg. It could accumulate up to 60.61% of lipids in nitrogen-limited medium (7.34 ± 0.45 g/L biomass production). The extracted lipids were converted to biodiesel with 89.3% conversion efficiency. The predominant fatty acids were oleic acid (30.09%), palmitic acid (20.25%) and linoleic acid (33.14%) suggesting a balance between oxidative stability and cold flow properties for suitable biodiesel quality. Penicillium citrinum PKB20 was found to be a potential feedstock for biodiesel production with desirable fuel properties. The cellulolytic nature could be utilised for simultaneous lipid production directly on cellulosic substrates.

Effect of Free Fatty Acid Pretreatment to Yield, Composition and Activation Energy in Chemical Synthesis of Fatty Acid Methyl Ester

Transesterification of waste cooking oil (WCO) for fatty acid methyl ester synthesis using calcium oxide (CaO) as a catalyst with absence and presence of free fatty acid (FFA) pretreatment (untreated and pretreated) prior to reaction have been investigated. The preliminary study was started from theoretical stoichiometric amount molar ratio of methanol to oil. This preliminary experiment showed that indeed, in transesterification with the chemical catalyst the molar ratio of methanol to oil should be exceeding the theoretical stoichiometric molar ratio, due to the fast reversible reaction. The highest FAME content of 81% was achieved at a temperature of 75 °C with pretreated FFA. The composition of methyl ester with pretreated FFA was affected by temperature, where increasing temperature leads to increasing of methyl oleate as major methyl ester in the product. The relation of temperature dependence was further studied by Arrhenius law correlation. It is shown that activation energy was affected by pretreatment of fatty acid. The activation energy (Ea) of transesterification with untreated and pretreated free fatty acid were found as ± 16 kJ/mol and ± 68 kJ/mol, respectively. Unlike untreated FFA, the Ea of transesterification with pretreated FFA was within the range of activation energy for transesterification for the base catalyst. This study showed that methyl ester synthesis was best obtained when FFA was pretreated prior to transesterification. In addition, WCO is a potential feedstock for biodiesel production since it is biodegradable, economic, environmentally friendly and abundantly available.

Enhancing lipid production of Synechocystis PCC 6803 for biofuels production, through environmental stress exposure

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of sodium nitrate (NaNO3) limitation on cyanobacterium Synechocystis PCC 6803 growth in order to increase its lipid content. The results revealed that the nitrate limitation conditions increase the volumetric biomass productivity, reaching the maximum content at 0.75 g/L NaNO3 (0.043 g/L·day). The maximum chlorophyll a and b concentrations were 6.42 μg/mL (0.75 g/L NaNO3) and 0.63 μg/mL (1.25 g/L NaNO3), respectively for Synechocystis PCC 6803, cultured in week 9. Also, Synechocystis PCC 6803 exhibited a decrease of protein content and an increase of lipid content with the decrease of NaNO3 concentration. The obtained results suggested that a concentration of 0.75 g/L NaNO3 in the Synechocystis PCC 680 growth medium resulted in the highest lipid content (21.3%), making it a potential feedstock for biodiesel production.

Environmental impacts of biodiesel production from waste spent coffee grounds and its implementation in a compression ignition engine

This study explores the environmental, economic, and technical feasibility of using spent coffee grounds as parent feedstock for biodiesel production. Biodiesel is produced from the spent coffee grounds, and four blends are prepared—B5, B10, B15, and B20. The effects of two extraction solvents (hexane and petroleum ether) on oil yields of the spent coffee grounds are investigated, employing the Soxhlet extraction technique. The properties of any intermediate yield throughout the production process are characterised and adjusted by post processes to ensure the conformity of the final biodiesel product with the standards (ASTM D6751 and ISO EN14214). The major part of the study investigates the effects of blends on tailpipe emissions and performance of a naturally aspirated single-cylinder compression ignition engine. A wide range of engine speeds (1600–3600rpm at 200-rpm increments) has been considered at three engine loads (100, 75, and 50%). The standard diesel fuel is set as a basis for comparison. Results show that the post processes on the extracted oil yielded water content of 0.038%, free fatty acid fraction of 0.41%, and acid number of <2mg KOH/g. The highest oil extraction (14.12%) was obtained over a 45-min extraction time using a hexane solvent. Biodiesel blends produced lower levels of CO2, CO, and HC. Blend B5 showed average reductions of 0.34, 12.5, and 4.23% at full load for the three aforementioned emissions, respectively; B10 reductions were 3.12, 29.85, and 19.14%, respectively. Higher levels of NOx emissions were detected from all blends. At full load, the average NOx increments of B5, B10, B15, and B20 were 0.35, 1.28, 1.8, and 2.3%, respectively. The outstanding environmental and ecological benefits of using the spent coffee grounds as a potential feedstock for biodiesel production are apparent.

Production of biodiesel from dairy waste scum using eggshell waste

An effluent from the dairy industry, waste scum oil containing triglycerides of fatty acids from C4- C18 was selected as a potential feedstock for biodiesel production in the presence of nano calcium oxide obtained from modified eggshell. The eggshell waste was calcined at 800 °C to facile synthesize nano calcium oxide and was characterized by X-ray diffractometer (XRD), Fourier Transform Infrared spectrometer (FTIR) and Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM). The calcined eggshell contains mainly nano calcium oxide (CaO) in calcite form with the crystallite size ranging from 16 to 22 nm. The transesterification reaction was carried out in a batch reactor and the operating parameters like catalyst loading, the molar ratio of methanol: oil, reaction temperature and time were optimized. Maximum biodiesel yield of 96% was obtained at the molar ratio of methanol: oil of 6:1, catalyst amount of 2.4 wt% and the reaction temperature of 65 °C for 3 h. The quality of biodiesel produced by transesterification of dairy waste scum was tested on variable four-stroke compressible diesel engine and found to be comparable with conventional diesel in brake thermal efficiency and specific fuel consumption. The biodiesel produced possessed high cetane number and low NOx, than conventional diesel. The results proved that nano CaO obtained from eggshell can be effectively reused and recycled as a heterogeneous catalyst for biodiesel production.

Process Optimization for Enhanced Biodiesel Production by Neochloris oleoabundans UTEX 1185 with Concomitant CO2 Sequestration

Algae are considered as a potential feedstock for biodiesel production. In this study, fresh water grown Neochloris oleoabundans UTEX 1185 is used as an impending source for lipid production in various configuration of photobioreactors (PBRs), namely, airlift, bubble column, and flat panel. Different physicochemical parameters, viz. initial pH, cultivation temperature, and nitrate concentrations, are optimized using single and multiparameter optimization techniques, which reveal that temperature is the most influential parameter for the optimum production of biomass and lipid. Higher production yields are experienced in bubble column PBR with ring sparger under the optimized conditions. Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) study is performed to understand the hydrodynamics of the bubble column PBR. Stoichiometric analysis shows that 1 g of algal biomass fixed 1.503 g of CO2 from air and released 1.506 g of O2. FAME analysis and fuel properties ascertain the suitability of algal lipid for biodiesel production.

Optimization of subcritical water-mediated lipid extraction from activated sludge for biodiesel production

The search for a cheap and readily available feedstock for biodiesel production has driven researchers to investigate the potential use of activated sludge-derived lipid. Due to the low lipid yield of activated sludge, the utility of subcritical water (SCW) is being considered as a means of increasing the extractable lipids. In this work, operating parameters (temperature, time and biomass loading) identified in our previous work to influence lipid yield from activated sludge under SCW treatment were optimized, using face-centered central composite design (FCCCD). The results show that the maximum lipid yield obtained from the liquid and solid products, post SCW treatment, at the optimum conditions of temperature 80 °C, extraction time 20 min and biomass loading 1%, was 41.0 (wt./wt.)%. This gives approximately 454 (wt./wt.)% increase from 7.4 (wt./wt.)% obtained by solvent extraction without SCW treatment. The results suggest that activated sludge is a potential feedstock for biodiesel production.

Qualitative Study on production of Methyl ester (Biodiesel) from Castor oil and Nannochloropsis

Abstract Biodiesel is evolving to be one of the most employed biofuels for partial replacement of petroleum-based diesel fuel. The most widely used feed stocks for biodiesel production are vegetable oils. But beside this traditional feedstock, microalgae is also of growing interest as a potential feedstock for biodiesel production due to its high lipid content when cultured under certain environment. In this work, biodiesel has been produced from Castor oil and Nannochloropsis Salina. The lipid content from Nannochloropsishas been extracted and converted into methyl ester using Soxhlet extraction (using two different solvents- n-hexane and chloroform and methanol mixture) followed by transesterification and using microwave assisted in-situ transesterification. The result shows that microwave irradiation has positive effect on lipid extraction from microalgae compared to traditional energy intensive Soxhlet extraction method. Although the microwave assisted in-situ transesterification is proved to be more effective for rupturing the rigid cell structure, the scalability of this process may be a challenge for large scale lipid extraction setup. The fatty acid composition of both the biodiesel sample was determined by Gas Chromatography. Results demonstrated that the COME (Castor oil methyl ester) is a better choice for diesel blending than Nannochloropsis Salina methyl ester.

Evaluating the potential of green alga Chlorella sp. for high biomass and lipid production in biodiesel viewpoint

Abstract The present study assessed the potential of green alga Chlorella sp. for maximal biomass and lipid production in biodiesel aspect. Initially, growth of the tested strain was analyzed in terms of dry cell weight, optical density and then, lipid content, lipid yield and fatty acid composition were studied. The growth profile study was carried out from 0th day to 20th day of cultivation to find an optimal day for harvesting the biomass. The potential microalga Chlorella sp. was found to yield maximum biomass at about 1.1 g/L and cell density of 2.0 optical density on 16th day of growth. Further, in this study, bioprospecting of Chlorella sp. showed a lipid content of 11.5% on 16th day in standard medium without carbon dioxide purging and mechanical stirring. Adding to that, cells harvested from log and stationary growth showed same lipid content of 11.5%, whereas culture harvested from lag phase was found to reveal a marginally less lipid content of 10.5%. Further, the lipid yield was estimated from the test strain Chlorella sp. grown under log and stationary phases. Based on the data, it is observed that the total lipid of the strain grown under both the phases was found to yield similar lipid of 0.11 g/L, which substantiates the lipid content of the strain. Fatty acid profile analysis of the tested strain indicates the presence of major fatty acids such as palmitic, palmitoleic, oleic, and linolenic acid. With this in view, the Chlorella sp. was foreseen to be a potential feedstock for biodiesel production considering cell density, dry cell weight, lipid content, lipid yield and fatty acid composition at ambient condition.

A first report on biodiesel production from Aglaia korthalsii seed oil using waste marine barnacle as a solid catalyst

Feedstock cost is one of the main considerations in biodiesel production and researchers intensively searching for a low cost feedstock in order to make the process viable. This study reports the use of Aglaia korthalsii seed oil as a potential feedstock for biodiesel production using waste marine barnacle as a solid catalyst. A. korthalsii with oil content of 16.2 ± 0.18 wt.% was subjected to transesterification using barnacle (a source of CaO) as a solid base catalyst. The catalyst was characterized using TGA, XRD and FESEM; upon calcination CaCO3 turned into CaO, the species that catalyze the transesterification reaction. Parametric optimization under Central Composite Design revealed that the optimal reaction conditions are as follow: 12.2:1 MeOH:oil molar ratio and 4.7 wt.% catalyst at 65 °C, 3 h reaction duration, under which A. korthalsii oil was successfully converted into methyl ester (ME) with highest conversion of 97.12 ± 0.49%. The catalyst could be reused for four times, maintaining methyl ester content at 95.83% and the product meets the key specifications for biodiesel.

Extraction and Characterization of Crop Oil from Seed Kernels of Feun Kase (Thevetia peruviana)

The seed kernel of Thevetia peruviana is a non-edible material but a potential resource to produce bulb lights in local society of West Timor. The light produced by the seeds makes it a probable feedstock for biodiesel production. In this report, the optimum condition for extraction of the crop oil from the seed kernel of Feun Kase (Thevetia peruviana) using conventional soxhlet technique was studied. The solvent used were chloroform, water, and a chloroform-water binary solvent. The parameters investigated effecting the oil yield involved various solvent polarities, extraction time, and temperature. Each experiment was conducted in 250 mL soxhlet apparatus. The extract was analyzed to examine the physicochemical characteristics including density, kinematic viscosity, acid value, iodine value, saponification value, and water content. The optimum conditions were found after 4.0 h extraction time, extraction temperature of 75 °C and a chloroform-water ratio of 100:0 (polarity index 4.10). The oil extract was found to be 52.43 ± 1.73%. These results revealed that the crop oil from the seed kernel of Feun Kase is a potential feedstock for biodiesel production.

Two Mychonastes isolated from freshwater bodies are novel potential feedstocks for biodiesel production

ABSTRACTMicroalgae have been considered as ideal feedstocks for biodiesel production but the potential application is still under investigations. Here, eight kinds of microalgae were identified from water samples based on the morphologic and phylogenetic analyses. Among these eight microalgae, two Mychonastes S4 and S15 exhibited relative faster growth rate in the early culture stage and the highest contents of lipids. The two Mychonastes also showed higher C18:1 contents than the two Chlorella which were traditionally considered to be potential species for biodiesel production. As one kind of less researched microalgae, this study suggests Mychonastes should be a potential feedstock for biodiesel production. The application of the microalgal biodiesel still have some limiting factors, however, it is promising based on better lipid extraction technology and more relevant studies.

Optimization of biodiesel production from Annona squamosa seed oil using response surface methodology and its characterization

ABSTRACTIn the present study, Annona squamosa seed oil has been evaluated as a potential feedstock for biodiesel production. The response surface methodology was used to determine the optimal conditions for the biodiesel production using a central composite design. A quadratic polynomial was developed to predict the response as a function of independent variables and their interactions and only the significant factors affecting the yield were fitted to a second-order response surface reduced 2 factor interaction (2FI) model. Four process variables were assessed at five levels. A biodiesel yield of 98.19% was obtained at optimum conditions: 7.53:1 methanol to oil molar ratio, 1.18 wt% catalyst concentration, reaction temperature of 59.55°C, and reaction time of 47.29 min.

Investigating and Improving the Cold Flow Properties of Waste Cooking Biodiesel Using Winterization and Blending

Waste cooking oil (WCO) can be used as a potential feedstocks for biodiesel production owing to its availability and cheap price. The main obstacle of using waste cooking biodiesel (WCB) as a fuel in engine is its cold flow properties (CFP) such as cloud point (CP) and pour point (PP). The CFP of biodiesel results in gum formation which is further leads to solidification of fuel, fuel line and filter which ultimately resulted in starting problem of engine. The CFP can be improved by adding cold flow improvers, blending and winterization. The present study investigates and improves the CFP of WCB using blending, and winterization. The result of the present study shows that CP and PP are improved from 14.1 to 8.6 °C and 10.3 to 2.1 °C respectively by using three steps winterization. The result also concluded that drastic improvement in CFP of WCB by 20% ethanol blending. It is found that ethanol as cold flow improver plays major role in enhancement of CFP of WCB as it improve both by 8 °C. The result of investigation recommends the use of WCBE20 blend of WCB with ethanol for engine operation under cold climatic condition without any fuel quality problem. Out of various methods for improving cold flow properties addition of cold flow improver is best method to achieve the desired values of cold flow properties for biodiesel.

Valorizing fish canning industry by-products to produce ω-3 compounds and biodiesel

Abstract A novel, inexpensive strategy was used to valorize fish canning industry by-products, aiming at ω -3 compounds and biodiesel production. Winterization and urea complexation methods were used to fraction the oil extracted from fish canning industry wastes. Urea complexation was the most efficient method, producing a liquid fraction with 99.99% ( w ∕ w ) of polyunsaturated fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) when methanol was used as solvent, and a solid fraction with 79.94% (w/w) of saturated and monosaturated FAME when ethanol was used as solvent, which was considered a potential feedstock for biodiesel production. The liquid fraction was further analysed by preparative HPLC analysis, producing an oil fraction with 99.44% ( w ∕ w ) ω -3 compounds, containing 89.25% eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) ( w ∕ w ). The method here described has an enormous potential for fish canning industry waste valorization as it is easily scale-up, foreseeing an environmentally sustainable society.

Thermal and Rheological Properties of Crude Tall Oil for Use in Biodiesel Production

The primary objective of this work was to investigate the thermal and rheological properties of crude tall oil (CTO), a low-cost by-product from the Kraft pulping process, as a potential feedstock for biodiesel production. Adequate knowledge of CTO properties is a prerequisite for the optimal design of a cost-effective biodiesel process and related processing equipment. The study revealed the correlation between the physicochemical properties, thermal, and rheological behavior of CTO. It was established that the trans/esterification temperature for CTO was greater than the temperature at which viscosity of CTO entered a steady-state. This information is useful in the selection of appropriate agitation conditions for optimal biodiesel production from CTO. The point of interception of storage modulus (G′) and loss modulus (G′′) determined the glass transition temperature (40 °C) of CTO that strongly correlated with its melting point (35.3 °C). The flow pattern of CTO was modeled as a non-Newtonian fluid. Furthermore, due to the high content of fatty acids (FA) in CTO, it is recommended to first reduce the FA level by acid catalyzed methanolysis prior to alkali treatment, or alternatively apply a one-step heterogeneous or enzymatic trans/esterification of CTO for high-yield biodiesel production.

Garcinia gummi-gutta (L.) Robs.: A promising feedstock for biodiesel production

ABSTRACTIn the present study crude Garcinia gummi-gutta seed oil was evaluated as a potential feedstock for biodiesel production. Due to the high acid value (29.73 mg KOH/g) the oil was converted to biodiesel by using acid catalyzed esterification process. Further, biodiesel properties of the sample were evaluated, which fulfilled the biodiesel specifications laid by ASTM D6751, EN 14214 and IS 15607. The biodiesel possessed excellent cetane number (66.09) and a high flash point (158°C). In addition, the calorific value (41.03 MJ/kg) was very close to diesel fuel. The results suggest that the G. gummi-gutta can be an alternative source for diesel and can be used as a potential feedstock for biodiesel in India.

The effects of pre-treatment and refining of high free fatty acid oil on the oxidation stability of biodiesel

ABSTRACTAlthough non-edible oil feedstocks with high free fatty acid (FFA) are potential feedstocks for biodiesel production, their utilization may require refining or pre-treatment prior to the production of biodiesel by alkali catalyzed transesterification. In this study, the crude Jatropha curcas oil with 4.54% FFA was either refined (neutralized, deodorized, and fully refining) or pre-treated (acid esterifying and glycolysis) to lower the FFA to less than 1% prior to biodiesel production by homogeneous base catalyzed transesterification. The study revealed that the oxidation stability of the biodiesel varies significantly with the method of either refining or pre-treating the FFA in oil. It was further observed that the biodiesel from re-esterified oil presented the greatest stability, followed by the biodiesel from neutralized, deodorized, acid pre-treated, and fully refined oil in that order. Biodiesel produced from fully refined and acid esterified oil showed the poorest oxidation stability and fail to meet the minimum required induction time of 6 h and 3 h as recommended by the EN 14214 and ASTM D6751 standards, respectively. Both neutralized and re-esterified oil present superior biodiesel oxidation stability with oxidation induction time 8.18 h and 8.24 h, respectively. Although pre-treatment and refining process lowers the FFA in the oil to less than 1% and produces biodiesel with more than 96.5% fatty acid methyl ester content content, the addition of antioxidants in the biodiesel from deodorized, acid esterified, and fully refined oil is inevitable due to poor oxidation stability of the produced biodiesel.

Isolation and characterization of an endoparasite from the culture of oleaginous microalga Graesiella sp. WBG-1

Oleaginous microalgae are an important potential feedstock for biodiesel production. However, a problem in mass cultivation of microalgae is the frequent occurrence of infection by algal parasites. In the present study, an endoparasite WZ01 was isolated from an open raceway pond of oleaginous Graesiella sp. WBG-1, and caused epidemics resulting in algal population collapse. According to 18S rDNA-based phylogenetic analyses, morphology, ultrastructure and life cycle, strain WZ01 was identified as a member of Aphelidea, Amoeboaphelidium protococcarum, although it had some minor differences from A. protococcarum X-5 and FD95. Examination via transmission electron microscopy demonstrated that zoospores of the parasite WZ01 were amoeboid, which can produce two types of pseudopodia (multiple filopodia and short anterior lamellipodium), but the pseudocilium was not observed. Interestingly, amoeboid zoospores contained numerous dense-body vesicles, which have not been previously described. Moreover, our results revealed the presence of a microtubule inside the penetration tube, indicating that the contents of the cyst were injected into the host not only by vacuole pressure but also by using a microtubule-mediated mechanism. In addition, of the 42 tested algal species, only cultures of coccoid green algae Chlorococcum sp. A213 and Chlorococcum sp. GP1 rapidly and intensively developed infections by parasite WZ01. This is the first report on endoparasitic infection in oleaginous coccoid green algae. Our results will enhance understanding of parasite–host relationships, which will be beneficial in developing strategies for infection control.