Climate Change Mitigation Potential Research Articles

From the Rainforest to the Fjords: examining equity in carbon capture and storage climate policy

ABSTRACT Carbon capture and storage (CCS) is considered by some to be a critical climate change mitigation technology, and a key element in efforts to limit the global temperature increases in line with the goals of the Paris Agreement. Implementation of CCS in mitigation scenarios assumes that it provides cost-effective emission reductions, and/or can achieve negative emissions when combined with bioenergy. We conduct a comparative case study of Brazil and Norway, two countries that are leading efforts to accelerate the development and deployment of CCS, to assess how these countries justify their CCS policy choices with respect to equity concerns. The findings show that the current design of CCS mitigation technologies can lead to unjust outcomes, and fossil fuel lock-in. Nevertheless, CCS has uses that go beyond fossil fuel infrastructure, which can improve its climate change mitigation potential.

Climate change mitigation potential and economic evaluation of selected technical adaptation measures and innovations in conventional arable farming in Germany.

Agriculture accounts for a large proportion of global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. It is therefore crucial to identify effective and efficient GHG mitigation potentials in agriculture, but also in related upstream sectors. However, previous studies in this area have rarely undertaken a cross-sectoral assessment. There is also a gap in research on the GHG mitigation potential of innovations such as green ammonia in arable farming at a larger spatial scale. The study therefore aimed to analyze how selected technological adaptations or innovations can be used to contribute to efficient and effective cross-sectoral GHG mitigation in conventional arable farming systems. Germany, one of the largest agricultural producers and contributors of GHG emissions from agriculture in the EU, was chosen as a case study. The GHG mitigation potential and abatement cost of four selected measures were analyzed using an integrated land use model and life cycle assessment. Their GHG mitigation potential varied between 0.3Mt CO2-eq. for nitrification inhibitors under lower mitigation rate assumptions and 4.7Mt CO2-eq. for green ammonia with upper mitigation rate assumptions on GHG emission impacts, i. e. rather high mitigation. While crop varieties based on new genomic technologies (NGT) were introduced at no GHG abatement cost, the average mitigation costs ranged from 48 € for the use of nitrification inhibitors (upper mitigation rate) to 1233 € per t CO2-eq. for N sensors (lower mitigation rate). There were also regional differences due to different land use structures, regional farm sizes, economic and agronomic conditions. Based on these results we recommend for agricultural and environmental policy to foster the use of nitrification inhibitors due to the identified GHG reduction potential and the comparatively low GHG abatement costs. Additionally, the use of green ammonia in fertilizer production should be further promoted. Although the results are exemplary for Germany, they can be very informative for other EU Member States with comparable socio-economic and agronomic conditions.

Protection of seabed sediments in Canada's marine conservation network for potential climate change mitigation co-benefit

Protection of seabed sediments in Canada's marine conservation network for potential climate change mitigation co-benefit

Advancing India's Agroforestry Potential: Leveraging Technology and Community Approaches for Sustainable Development

Agroforestry, a sustainable land management practice integrating trees with crops and livestock, holds immense potential for climate change mitigation and enhancing rural livelihoods in India. This article explores the synergy between advanced Remote Sensing (RS) technologies, such as vegetation indices like NDVI, and participatory approaches involving Farmer Producer Organizations (FPOs), cooperatives, and other farmer collectives. These combined interventions enable efficient monitoring and large-scale Afforestation, Reforestation, and Revegetation (ARR) activities, ensuring carbon finance benefits. By leveraging technology and collaboration, agroforestry can significantly contribute to India's carbon neutrality goals, ecosystem restoration, and sustainable income generation for farmers.

Carbon removal potentials in agricultural systems – participatory scenario modelling with farmers in Sweden

Estimates of theoretical climate change mitigation potentials in agriculture need to be complemented with investigations of factors that influence deployment. This study introduces a framework for landscape-level assessment of climate change mitigation in agriculture that accounts for existing land uses, soil carbon stocks, and farmers’ preferences concerning specific mitigation options. The framework is used in an assessment of the deployment potentials for selected mitigation options in an agricultural landscape in Sweden, in which arable land covers approximately one-third of the land area. Three options were found to be preferable by farmers: biochar as soil amendment, cover crops, and (an increased) cultivation of ley crops in crop rotations. Cultivation of cover crops and leys was found to increase SOC stocks by 1.9 and 1.6 MgC ha−1 over three decades, respectively. About 10.2 MgC ha−1 is sequestered in soils over three decades when biochar is added as a soil amendment, if 50% of available residues are collected and utilized. This can be compared with GHG emissions from agriculture from the studied area, estimated at 1.6 Mg CO2-eq ha−1 yr−1 (GWP100). The framework was found useful for assessing mitigation options in the agriculture sector, underlining farmer involvement to identify actionable strategies.

Optimizing the utilization of harvested wood products for maximum greenhouse gas emission reduction in a bioeconomy: A multi-objective optimization approach

Climate change mitigation in a bioeconomy can be attained by increased use of harvested wood products. Thereby, substitution effects can contribute to reducing the Global Warming Potential, and storage effects can prevent direct carbon emissions to the atmosphere. Substitution and storage effects are often only considered as marginal changes. However, an absolute upper limit exists for these effects due to limited harvesting of forests. The maximum emission reduction potential of these two effects depends on the distribution of wood across wood value chains. This study investigates how wood can be distributed optimally across value chains to achieve the maximum climate change mitigation potential by substitution and storage effects, taking a multi-objective optimization approach. Results indicate that sawable wood should be utilized in sawnwood applications to achieve the highest GHG emission reduction, while non-sawable wood contributes to maximal storage effects when used in material applications. The highest substitution effects occur when non-sawable wood is used for energy production. Both substitution and storage effects lead to a substantial mitigation effect, whereby storage effects yield a higher total reduction. The presented optimization method overcomes the limitations of marginal considerations and highlights opportunities for climate change mitigation within these limits. This study emphasizes the importance of taking a systems perspective on climate change mitigation in a bioeconomy and of understanding the limits of these effects regarding environmental policies and management.

Carbon farming for climate change mitigation and ecosystem services – Potentials and influencing factors

Carbon Farming (CF) decreases atmospheric CO2 concentrations by increasing carbon stocks in soils and biomass. In addition to mitigating climate change, CF measures provide co-benefits through the supply of additional ecosystem services (ES). Integrating such benefits into a comprehensive assessment may increase the attractiveness of CF measures, increase adoption rates, and ultimately benefit climate and ecosystems. However, site-specific and measure-specific characteristics influence the impacts of CF measures. A comprehensive overview over CF impacts is lacking. We therefore analyzed six CF measures on cropland in the European temperate zone: (1) cover cropping, (2) introducing legumes or semi-perennial crops into crop rotations, (3) conversion to short rotation coppice, (4) agroforestry, (5) afforestation of marginal cropland, and (6) partial rewetting of drained organic soils. Through a structured literature review, we derived on-site climate change mitigation potentials, impacts on the supply of ES, and economic trade-offs, as well as influencing factors causing spatial heterogeneities. Our results show that the climate change mitigation potential varies strongly between and within CF measures. All measures can boost the supply of regulating ecosystem services, while trade-offs exist mainly with provisioning services and economic returns. Spatially heterogeneous effects in ES supply depend on local ES demand. As proof of concept, we mapped expected beneficial ES effects from 4 selected ES positively impacted by the measure (4) agroforestry in a GIS environment for Germany, as well as opportunity costs as an economic trade-off. The results suggest that strong co-benefits can be expected in areas where opportunity costs are high. Moreover, the CF measures with the highest climate change mitigation potential also imply the highest systemic change of the farm system. This constitutes a strong economic hurdle to implementation. We argue that payments for ES are needed to incentivize CF adoption and harness the beneficial effects on climate and ecosystems. Our findings provide a comprehensive view on the effect of CF measures and may support effective European climate change mitigation policy.

Assessment of soil CO2, CH4, and N2O fluxes and their drivers, and their contribution to the climate change mitigation potential of forest soils in the Lublin region of Poland

AbstractForests can play a key role in the mitigation of climate change, although there have been limited regional scale assessments that account for variations in soil type and tree species. Most of the focus has been on their ability to sequester atmospheric CO2, while there is less information on the two other major greenhouse gases (GHGs), N2O and CH4. We examined the GHG budgets of ten forest soils in Poland, considering all three major GHGs, where no previous long-term measurements had been made, which encompassed different tree species, stand age, and contrasting edaphic conditions. In addition to the quantification and assessment of seasonal variability in the major soil GHG fluxes over two years, the aims of the present study were (i) the identification of the main drivers of the soil-based GHG fluxes, (ii) the determination of the contribution of each gas to the Global Warming Potential (GWP), and (iii) to assess the mitigation potential of these fluxes over different forest systems. All the forest soils were sources of CO2 and N2O and sinks for atmospheric CH4 with pronounced seasonal variations in CO2 and CH4 driven by soil moisture and temperature. The soils showed significant differences in annual GHG fluxes, with average values of 16.7 Mg CO2 ha−1, − 3.51 kg CH4 ha−1, and 0.95 kg N2O ha−1. The annual total GWP ranged from 13.1 to 22.0 Mg CO2 eq ha−1 with CO2 making the highest contribution, and forest-specific CH4 uptake resulting in a reduction in GWP, ranging from − 0.08% (in the youngest forest) to -0.97% (in the oldest forest). Mixed forests showed the greatest potential for climate change mitigation, with the highest soil C sequestration, and the lowest GWP values when compared to sites with monocultures. The results suggest that a mixture of tree species could eventually be incorporated into management plans to increase the effectiveness of forests in climate change mitigation.

A First Assessment of Greenhouse Gas Emissions From Agricultural Peatlands in Canada: Evaluation of Climate Change Mitigation Potential

ABSTRACTCanada has a quarter of the world's peatlands accounting for an estimated 150 Gt of stored carbon. While over 98% of Canadian peatlands are intact, agriculture has been estimated as accounting for the greatest peatland disturbance by area. Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from peatland agriculture can contribute a large proportion of national anthropogenic emissions for some countries. In Canada, estimates of GHG emissions from cultivated peat soils are incomplete. Improved accounting of these GHG emissions is required to inform decisions about where to deploy ecological restoration projects and where to allow future agricultural expansion as climate warms. Compiled studies that measured GHG fluxes from agricultural peat fields in Canada resulted in mean emissions factors of 5.1 t CO2e ha−1 year−1, −0.12 kg CH4 ha−1 year−1, and 14.3 kg N2O‐N ha−1 year−1 for carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide, respectively. Combining these values with a compilation of estimates of agricultural peatland disturbance area in Canada, GHG emissions estimates in Canada arising from peatland converted to agriculture remain highly uncertain, ranging from 1.4 to 35 Mt CO2e year−1, with a median value near 18 Mt CO2e year−1. The largest contributor to this wide range of estimates is uncertainty peatland area affected, indicating an urgent need to improving mapping of organic soils under agriculture in Canada. To help guide decision‐making in Canada, we recommend a network of research stations across a range of agricultural management intensities and climate regions for monitoring hydrological conditions and GHG exchange on organic soils affected by agriculture.

Variable associations of annual biomass increment with age, latitude and germination year in four tree species in Sweden

Forests are pivotal for biodiversity, food webs, and human economies, and as carbon sinks their climate change mitigation potential is undisputed. However, whether trees continue to efficiently accumulate biomass at an increasing rate with age, how growth trajectories respond to climate change, and vary with latitude at species range margins is under debate. Here, we combine tree-ring data with biometric equation modeling to analyze how annual biomass increment varies according to tree age, species, latitude, and germination year. We generated 26,225 estimates of annual biomass increments for 136 individual trees, representing two evergreen gymnosperm conifer species (Picea abies (L.) H.Karst., and Pinus sylvestris L.) and two deciduous angiosperm species (Quercus spp. L. and Fagus sylvatica L.). Our dataset includes some old trees (range 150 - 405 years), and samples from locations spanning >10° latitude (55.0 - 66.3 °N) in Sweden. Annual biomass increments varied considerably between species, years and among individual trees within stands. On average, biomass increment remained positive throughout the lifespan across trees, species, and latitudes. Age-specific biomass increment was higher in the deciduous than in the evergreen species and declined with increasing latitude within species. For spruce and beech, biomass increment increased significantly with germination year, possibly reflecting faster growth in recent times in response to a warmer climate. The findings have implications for forestry practices aimed at productivity, biodiversity conservation, and climate change mitigation.

Contrasting forest management strategies: Impacts on biodiversity and ecosystem services under changing climate and disturbance regimes

Natural disturbances may compromise the past and ongoing efforts to increase carbon sequestration and halt biodiversity loss in boreal forests. Measures to minimize the effects of forest disturbances i.e., adaptive management, offer solutions to secure future timber yields. However, the consequences of adaptive management on biodiversity, the climate change mitigation potential of forests, and other ecosystem services are not well understood. In addition, the impact of climate change and disturbances on future forest-based mitigation potential is not well known. We compared the effects of forest management options emphasizing climate change mitigation or adaptation on boreal forests in changing climate and disturbance regimes in southern Finland. We used the process-based forest landscape and disturbance model iLand to dynamically model interactions between climate change and disturbances together with forest management and protection options, and examined the consequent effects on forest carbon storage, berry yields, recreation, and structural attributes important for biodiversity. Mitigation managements resulted in up to one-fifth higher carbon stocks, even after accounting for disturbances by wind and bark beetles, but halved annual harvests over the 80-year simulation period. Adaptive managements reduced bark beetle disturbances, but in some cases the disturbed volumes were even higher than under business-as-usual management due to increased wind damage. The effects of proactive risk management depended on the time horizon considered, the adaptive management option chosen and the climate change scenario. In general, the mitigation managements had positive effects on the biodiversity indicators studied, while the effects of adaptive management were mixed. Our results highlight the complex interactions between disturbance risk prevention, biodiversity, carbon sequestration and storage, and other ecosystem services. The results guide forest managers and policymakers to plan mitigation and adaptation strategies optimizing multiple benefits, and strengthening forest resilience in a changing climate.

An Analysis of the Climate Change Mitigation Potential of Solid Waste Management Scenarios for the Small Island Developing State of Mauritius from a Life Cycle Sustainability Perspective

An Analysis of the Climate Change Mitigation Potential of Solid Waste Management Scenarios for the Small Island Developing State of Mauritius from a Life Cycle Sustainability Perspective

A place in the sun: Farmers' co-benefits from solar irrigation in Bangladesh

Solar irrigation pumps (SIPs) are gradually replacing diesel pumps in relatively water-intensive agricultural production systems and geographies to reduce carbon emissions from food systems. However, beyond its climate change mitigation potential and fulfillment of Nationally Determined Contributions commitments, the adoption of solar irrigation also has direct co-benefits for farmers. Taking the case of Bangladesh and anchored on primary data collected among solar and diesel pump users, this article analyses the role access to solar irrigation has on household and farm-level outcomes. The propensity score matching and inverse probability matching approaches identify a positive effect of SIP access on food security and profitability from dry-season paddy for adopters. Different transmission channels are explored to explain these co-benefits. Lower costs of irrigation and labor are identified as the strongest pathways. This analysis strengthens the case for investments toward the solarization of agriculture in developing countries where it delivers significant development co-benefits in addition to climate change mitigation benefits. The valuation of the farmers' co-benefits, along with global climate mitigation impacts, also highlights the potential role of such programs toward climate justice.

Life cycle assessment of liquid biofuels: What does the scientific literature tell us? A statistical environmental review on climate change

More than 580 peer-reviewed articles dealing with life cycle assessment (LCA) of biofuels, published from 2012 to 2020, were identified in the scientific literature. Articles without a clear and complete LCA hypothesis were discarded. This resulted into 172 useable articles, providing 566 carbon footprints. LCA of biofuels is a topic that has attracted increasing interest in recent times, with an average production of 20 papers per year on the subject. The objectives addressed range from installation optimisation and the assessment of new types of biomass to comparison of pathways and the impact of methodological choices in LCA. The analysis of published carbon footprints reveals a hierarchy in terms of the carbon footprint of diesel, gasoline, and jet fuel substitutes. The type of feedstock appears to be a determinant. Data collected from the literature highlight that biofuels’ carbon footprint varies greatly. However, the climate change mitigation potential of some pathways can be clearly confirmed. Methodological choices adopted by LCA practitioners remain an important source of differences in LCA results, as the allocation choices for co-products or the inclusion of land use change can lead to a wide range of results. The carbon neutrality principle also has the potential to influence LCA results, as described in the statistical analysis. Through an extensive literature review and a statistical analysis using econometric methods, this work provides an overview and analysis of the variability of the environmental impacts of biofuels in terms of greenhouse gas (GHG) to help shape stakeholder decision-making.

Assessment of soil carbon dioxide efflux from contrasting land uses in a semi-arid savannah ecosystem, northeastern Ghana (West Africa)

Soil respiration (SR) emits a vast amount of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) and contributes largely to the global greenhouse gas budget. The study assessed the dynamics of SR rates in the Vea catchment in northeastern Ghana, a sparsely gauged semi-arid savannah ecosystem characterized by distinct patterns of soil CO2 efflux. Through field measurements using soil chambers, the study quantified soil CO2 efflux rates in different land use types (woodland, cropland and grazeland), and assessed the influence of soil moisture, temperature, and soil organic carbon stocks on SR variability. The highest soil CO2 fluxes (12.97 ± 0.89 Mg CO2C ha−1 yr−1) were recorded in woodland, followed by grazeland (9.10 ± 0.42 Mg CO2C ha−1 yr−1) with cropland having the lowest rate (5.61 ± 0.29 Mg CO2C ha−1 yr−1). We recorded mean annual soil CO2 flux of 9.23 ± 0.53 Mg CO2C ha−1 yr−1 across the land use types and also observed significant seasonal and spatial variations in SR rates. The highest SR rate (220 mg CO2C m−2h−1) was recorded in the wet months (Jul-Sept and Mar-May) and the lowest rate (30 mg CO2C m−2h−1) in the dry months (Nov-Jan). For the wet season, the mean weekly soil CO2 fluxes ranged between 140 and 160 mg CO2C m−2 hr−1 as opposed to 60–75 mg CO2C m−2 hr−1 for the dry season. Seasonal and spatial variations in SR rates were largely driven by land use type, soil moisture and the interaction of soil temperature and moisture. The results underscore the importance of understanding the emission patterns from various land uses in West African savanna ecosystems to harnessing their potential for climate change mitigation.

A rough set-based model for predicting soil greenhouse gases response to biochar

Biochar application to soil is a potential climate change mitigation strategy. In addition to long-term sequestration of the carbon content of the biochar itself, its application may reduce the emissions of other greenhouse gases (GHGs) from the soil. However, the reported effects of biochar application on soil GHG fluxes exhibit inconsistent results. Prediction of such effects is an important gap that needs to be addressed in biochar research. In this study, rule-based machine learning models were developed based on rough-set theory. Data from the literature were used to generate the rules for predicting the effects of biochar application on soil GHG (CO2, N2O, and CH4) fluxes. Four rule-based models for CO2 fluxes, two rule-based models for N2O fluxes, and three rule-based models for CH4 fluxes were developed. The validity of these models was assessed based on both statistical measures and mechanistic plausibility. The final rule-based models can guide the prediction of changes in soil GHG fluxes due to biochar application, and thus serve as a decision-support tool to maximize the benefits of biochar application as a negative emission technology (NET). In particular, mechanistically plausible rules were identified that predict triggers for GHG fluxes that can offset carbon sequestration gains. This knowledge allows biochar application to be calibrated to local conditions for maximum efficacy.Graphical

Assessment of climate change mitigation potential of the Kosovo energy and transport sector

The Energy and transport sector in Kosovo are the main emitter of greenhouse gases (GHG) with a share of about 85% in total annual emissions. In energetic sector, 95-97% of emissions are associated with the electricity generation due to the predominant role of lignite fuelled power plants. The electricity sector contributes about 80% of total CO2 emissions in Kosovo. Those make the energy and transport sector the main emitters of CO2 and also the main target for CO2 emissions reduction. The National Energy and Climate Plan 2021-2030 aims to ensure a reliable supply of energy for Kosovo and proposes targets for renewable, energy efficiency, and greenhouse gas reductions. This paper presents analyses of different time frame scenarios for development of the Kosovo energy system in relation to climate change mitigation potential of the Kosovo energy and transport sector. The national energy system of Kosovo is modelled using EnergyPLAN software which integrates energy for electricity, transport and heat, and includes hourly fluctuations of energy demand and energy production. Three scenarios of Kosovo Energy system are modelled; starting point scenario 2019 and two long term scenarios 2030 with 23.3% and 41.8% share of renewable. An analysis of the overall energy system costs and security of supply with a main focus in electricity sector of the three scenarios is performed.

One-pot synthesis of supported PtCox bifunctional catalysts for oxygen reduction and hydrogen evolution reactions

Hydrogen fuel cells and water electrolyzers hold significant potential for net zero emission and climate change mitigation, but their practical applications are limited by the use of the precious-metal platinum as catalysts. In this study, a one-pot method is developed for the synthesis of PtCox alloys supported on hybrid carbon materials, and it is found that the developed catalysts with reduced Pt loading can act as excellent bifunctional catalysts for both oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) and hydrogen evolution reaction (HER). Morphology and composition characterizations indicate uniform dispersion and adjustable composition of PtCox alloys with the particle size of ∼3 nm on the carbon support. Among them, Pt3Co/C achieves the highest ORR performance with a high mass activity of 179.23 A/g and a specific activity of 3.15 A/m2 in acidic condition, and an extremely low overpotential of 47.6 mV at 10 mA/cm2 in alkaline media as a HER catalyst. This study presents a cost-effective approach for the development of high performance PtCox/C catalysts, and confirms their potential application in hydrogen energy technologies.

Spatial variability in blue carbon storage and sequestration of seagrass meadows in southern China

Although seagrass meadows are intense carbon sinks, information on the regional variability in seagrass blue carbon stocks and carbon sequestration remains limited. We estimated the organic carbon (Corg) stocks and carbon accumulation rates (CAR) of seven seagrass meadows along the subtropical coast of China's Zhanjiang City and analyzed the driving factors of variability in sediment Corg stocks in three seagrass meadows. Results showed that most Corg (99.83 %) was stored in the sediments, and the contribution of living biomass was minor. The average Corg stocks of living biomass and sediments across all sites were 0.04 ± 0.01 and 42.03 ± 25.07 Mg C ha−1, respectively, which were significantly lower than the world average (2.52 ± 0.48 and 194.2 Mg C ha−1). The sediment Corg stocks of the upper 1 m ranged from 24.26 to 157.12 Mg C ha−1 with substantial variability among sites: Liusha Bay (64.93 ± 22.31 Mg C ha−1) > Donghai Island (33.8 ± 10.65 Mg C ha−1) > Dongshen Ferry (27.35 ± 4.15 Mg C ha−1). The average sediment CAR was 53.47 g C m−2 yr−1, and the total CAR of 864.18 ha seagrass meadows was 260.76 ± 4.86 Mg C yr−1 in these studied sites. Physicochemical factors, such as high moisture content, salinity, CaCO3 content, and low dry bulk density, jointly inhibited the mineralization rate of Corg in sediments. Our study provides data from understudied regions to a growing dataset on seagrass carbon stocks and sequestration rates and highlights the significance of local and regional differences in seagrass blue carbon storage to accurately assess the climate change mitigation potential of seagrass ecosystems.

Carbon reduction benefits of photovoltaic-green roofs and their climate change mitigation potential: A case study of Xiamen city

The Photovoltaic-Green Roof (PV-GR) system, which integrates rooftop photovoltaics and green roofing, has significant potential for sustainable urban development and climate change mitigation. However, the specific effects of PV-GR are not yet clear. This paper employs methodologies including Geographic Information Systems (GIS), Denitrification-Decomposition(DNDC) Model, and solar simulation. Combined with ecological balance calculations, these methods assess PV-GR's carbon reduction benefits and its potential to mitigate climate change. Using Xiamen City as a case study, research shows that Xiamen has about 54 km² of rooftops suitable for PV-GR. Annually, PV-GR can produce about 5.931×103 tons of biomass and generate 7,427 GWh of electricity, meeting about 22.13 % of Xiamen's annual electricity demand. The annual carbon reduction from Xiamen's PV-GR is estimated at about 5.131×106 t CO2-eq, offsetting around 29.28 % of the city's annual carbon emissions. Over a 30-year lifecycle, PV-GR's carbon emissions and reduction benefits amount to 2.274×107 t CO2-eq and 1.539×108 t CO2-eq, respectively. The ecological footprint of deploying PV-GR in Xiamen is 6.709×104 Gha, while the biocapacity reaches 4.542×105 Gha. The global ecological balance stands at 3.872×105 Gha, suggesting that PV-GR can significantly contribute to mitigating climate change.