Potable Reuse Of Wastewater Research Articles

Evaluation of the Impact of Recycled Distillery Effluent on the Cultivation of Wheat and Sorghum

With increasing global water scarcity, the reuse of treated wastewater for agricultural irrigation offers a promising solution, particularly in arid regions. This study evaluates the impact of distillery wastewater from Kinmen Kaoliang Liquor Inc. (KKL) on the growth of wheat and sorghum in the Kinmen region. The field experiment applied varying proportions of KKL wastewater to assess its effects on soil properties, nutrient distribution, and crop performance. The results showed that wastewater irrigation increased soil concentrations of key nutrients, such as potassium (K), sodium (Na), magnesium (Mg), and phosphorus (P), but also raised the electrical conductivity (EC) and sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) beyond acceptable irrigation standards. K, Mg, Ca, and P primarily accumulated in the stems and grains, while Na was concentrated in the roots. However, higher wastewater concentrations negatively affected soil permeability due to Na accumulation, and elevated salinity levels led to reduced plant biomass. This study concludes that although wastewater irrigation improves nutrient availability, careful management is essential to mitigate salinity risks and ensure sustainable agricultural practices. These findings offer valuable insights into the potential of wastewater reuse in water-scarce regions and provide practical recommendations for managing associated risks.

Investigation of the agricultural reuse potential of urban wastewater and other resources derived by using membrane bioreactor technology within the circular economy framework

The European Union, as delineated in Regulation (EU) 2020/741, sets forth minimum criteria for the reuse of wastewater. Directive 86/278/CEE sets the regulations for the reuse of sewage sludge in agriculture. This study aimed to investigate the treated water derived from a pilot plant situated in Granada, Spain, that utilizes membrane bioreactor technology to process real urban wastewater with the quality standards necessary for agricultural reuse. Additionally, the study evaluated the utilization potential of other resources generated during wastewater treatment, including biogas and biostabilized sludge. The pilot plant incorporated a membrane bioreactor featuring four ultrafiltration membranes operating continuously alongside a sludge treatment line operating in batch mode. The pilot plant operated during four cycles, each with distinct hydraulic retention times (6 h and 12 h) and variable mixed liquor-suspended solids concentrations (ranging from 2688 mg L−1 to 7542 mg L−1). During these cycles, the plant was doped with increasing concentrations of emerging contamination compounds (diclofenac, ibuprofen, and erythromycin) to test their effect on the resources derived from the treatment. Subsequently, a tertiary treatment involving an advanced oxidation process was applied to the different water lines, which left the wastewater treatment plant for a period of 30 min and utilized varying concentrations of oxidant. The results indicate that the effluent obtained meets the required quality standards for agricultural use. Therefore, there is potential to use this waste as a resource, which is in line with the principles of the circular economy. Furthermore, the other resources generated during the treatment process, such as the biogas produced during the digestion process and the biostabilized sludge, have the potential to be used as resources according to the circular economy indicators.

Strategic water resource management: pump stations in Fayoum City, Egypt

Water scarcity presents significant challenges to sustainable development, particularly in arid regions like Fayoum City, Egypt, which faces particular water challenges due to its unique topography. This study explores the pivotal role of pump stations and wastewater reuse in mitigating water scarcity and promoting sustainable water management practices. Utilizing a comprehensive mixed-method approach, including desk research, field surveys, stakeholder interviews, and integrating the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) into a decision-making framework. The study categorizes pump stations into priority ranking groups based on the evaluation of the following criteria: efficiency, operating hours, working unit ratio, and discharge capacity. The investigation reveals that the 72 pump stations in Fayoum City play a vital role in regulating water levels, optimizing distribution, and facilitating the reuse of irrigation wastewater. Despite operational challenges, such as manpower shortages and maintenance issues, these stations are crucial for sustaining agricultural productivity and addressing water scarcity concerns, including the prevention of recurring inundation events like the one in 2012. Moreover, the study underscores the potential of wastewater reuse as a sustainable solution to water scarcity, particularly in meeting agricultural water demands and mitigating water balance issues, such as inundation. Based on the findings, the study proposes actionable recommendations, including upgrading high-priority pump stations, evaluating lower-priority ones, enhancing canal infrastructure, and promoting water-efficient irrigation methods. In conclusion, this study provides valuable insights into the pivotal role of pump stations and wastewater reuse in addressing water scarcity challenges in arid regions. By implementing the proposed recommendations, Fayoum City can optimize its water management practices, ensure water security, and support the long-term development of the region.

Effluent quality and reuse potential of wastewater treated in constructed wetlands in Southern Brazil

ABSTRACT The main objective of this study was to evaluate the quality and reuse potential of treated effluents by constructed wetlands (CW) systems utilized for decentralized wastewater treatment in urban and rural scenarios in southern Brazil. The assessment, based on Brazilian discharge standards and wastewater reuse guidelines, revealed a close link between treatment efficiency and technological configurations, considering diverse inlet wastewater sources. Most CW treated effluents complied with regulatory standards for disposal, prompting the exploration of reuse scenarios in urban and agricultural settings. However, the study underscores the imperative for rigorous disinfection due to the limited microbiological removal capacity of CW. Overall, the research emphasizes the adaptability and resilience of CW in treating diverse wastewater compositions, highlighting their pivotal role in advancing circular economy principles within sanitation services. Importantly, the findings suggest significant potential for treated wastewater reuse in both urban and agricultural settings. Urban applications, including toilet flushing, floor washing, and garden irrigation, prove feasible for CW systems situated in residential and commercial buildings. Meanwhile, rural CW systems demonstrate suitability for reclaimed water directed toward crop fertigation, tailored to the specific needs and irrigation methods of various crops.

Chlorination of Emerging Contaminants for Application in Potable Wastewater Reuse: Disinfection Byproduct Formation, Estrogen Activity, and Cytotoxicity.

With increasing water scarcity, many utilities are considering the potable reuse of wastewater as a source of drinking water. However, not all chemicals are removed in conventional wastewater treatment, and disinfection byproducts (DBPs) can form from these contaminants when disinfectants are applied during or after reuse treatment, especially if applied upstream of advanced treatment processes to control biofouling. We investigated the chlorination of seven priority emerging contaminants (17β-estradiol, estrone, 17α-ethinylestradiol, bisphenol A (BPA), diclofenac, p-nonylphenol, and triclosan) in ultrapure water, and we also investigated the impact of chlorination on real samples from different treatment stages of an advanced reuse plant to evaluate the role of chlorination on the associated cytotoxicity and estrogenicity. Many DBPs were tentatively identified via liquid chromatography (LC)- and gas chromatography (GC)-high resolution mass spectrometry, including 28 not previously reported. These encompassed chlorinated, brominated, and oxidized analogs of the parent compounds as well as smaller halogenated molecules. Chlorinated BPA was the least cytotoxic of the DBPs formed but was highly estrogenic, whereas chlorinated hormones were highly cytotoxic. Estrogenicity decreased by ∼4-6 orders of magnitude for 17β-estradiol and estrone following chlorination but increased 2 orders of magnitude for diclofenac. Estrogenicity of chlorinated BPA and p-nonylphenol were ∼50% of the natural/synthetic hormones. Potential seasonal differences in estrogen activity of unreacted vs reacted advanced wastewater treatment field samples were observed.

A review on the fate of micro and nano plastics (MNPs) and their implication in regulating nutrient cycling in constructed wetland systems

This review discusses the micro-nano plastics (MNPs) and their interaction with physical, chemical and biological processes in a constructed wetland (CW) system that is typically used as a nature-based tertiary wastewater treatment for municipal as well as industrial applications. Individual components of the CW system such as substrate, microorganisms and plants were considered to assess how MNPs influence the CW processes. One of the main functions of a CW system is removal of nutrients like nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) and here we highlight the pathways through which the MNPs influence CW's efficacy of nutrient removal. The presence of morphologically (size and shape) and chemically different MNPs influence the growth rate of microorganisms important in N and P cycling, invertebrates, decomposers, and the plants which affect the overall efficiency of a CW treatment system. Certain plant species take up the MNPs, and some toxicity has been observed. This review focuses on two significant aspects: (1) the presence of MNPs in a significant concentration affects the efficiency of N and P removal, and (2) the removal of MNPs. Because MNPs reduce the enzyme activities in abundance and overproduction of ROS oxidizes the enzyme active sites, resulting in the depletion of proteins, ultimately inhibiting nitrogen and phosphorus removal within the substrate layer. The review found that the majority of the studies used sand-activated carbon (SAC), granular-activated carbon (GAC), rice straw, granular limestone, and calcium carbonate, as a substrate for CW treatment systems. Common plant species used in the CW include Phragmites, Arabidopsis thaliana, Lepidium sativum, Thalia dealbata, and Canna indica, which were also found to be dominant in the uptake of the MNPs in the CWs. The MNPs were found to affect earthworms such as Eisenia fetida, Caenorhabditis elegans, and, Enchytraeus crypticus, whereas Metaphire vulgaris were found unaffected. Though various mechanisms take place during the removal process, adsorption and uptake mechanism effectively emphasize the removal of MNPs and nitrogen and phosphorus in CW. The MNPs characteristics (type, size, and concentration) play a crucial role in the removal efficiency of nano-plastics (NPs) and micro-plastics (MPs). The enhanced removal efficiency of NPs compared to MPs can be attributed to their smaller size, resulting in a faster reaction rate. However, NPs dose variation showed fluctuating removal efficiency, whereas MPs dose increment reduces removal efficiency. MP and NPs dose variation also affected toxicity to plants and earthworms as observed from data. Understanding the fate and removal of microplastics in wetland systems will help determine the reuse potential of wastewater and restrict the release of microplastics. This study provides information on various aspects and highlights future gaps and needs for MNP fate study in CW systems.

Investigation of reusability of effluents from an organized industrial zone wastewater treatment plant using a pressure-driven membrane process

Abstract The quantity of wastewater being discharged into the environment due to the rise in industrial activities is progressively growing over time. Aside from large environmental risk posed by untreated wastewater discharge, the reuse of treated water prevents wastage of large amounts of water. For this reason, in this study, the reuse potential of an organized industrial zone wastewater was investigated by membrane processes. The appropriate membrane type and rejection performance were determined for various pollutant parameters including conductivity, chemical oxygen demand (COD), total nitrogen (TN), chloride, and sulfate. Laboratory-scale batch membrane filtration experiments were performed by using three different membrane types (BW30, XLE, and X20). The experiments were conducted at 15 and 20 bar pressures and flux data were collected during the operations. The results showed that BW30 and X20 membranes could be operated comfortably with 80% recovery for the wastewater containing low and high sulfate concentrations. For the wastewater with low sulfate concentration, the fluxes of BW30 and X20 at 20 bar were 19.7 and 16.4 L/m2/h, respectively, at 80% recovery. On the other hand, for the wastewater with higher sulfate concentration, the fluxes of BW30 and X20 at 20 bar were 8.6 and 11.5 L/m2/h, respectively.

Piezoelectric-channels in MoS2-embedded polyvinylidene fluoride membrane to activate peroxymonosulfate in membrane filtration for wastewater reuse

The conjugation of membrane filtration (MF) with advanced oxidation process (AOPs) is being considered as an alternative advanced treatment process for the potable reuse of wastewater. Beyond conventional MF/AOPs conjugation, a new downstream MF process with piezoelectric-channels induced piezo-activated peroxymonosulfate (PMS) is herein constructed to deal with antiepileptic carbamazepine (CBZ) pollutants through polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) membrane (PVDF-M10). Through a MF process, ca. 93.8% CBZ pollutants can be removed under an ultrasonic-assisted piezo-activation PMS, whereas only 18.3% and 60.2% CBZ can be removed by using pure PVDF membrane under the same condition and PVDF-M10 membrane without ultrasonic-assisted piezo-activation. Even after 9-cycles, CBZ removal efficiency was maintained at 56.4% under this MF process. These superior performances are attributed to the piezoelectric exfoliated-MoS2 nanosheets (E-MoS2) embedded PVDF nanofibers in PVDF-M10 membrane, which lead to rich piezoelectric-channels in the membrane. These piezoelectric-channels not only produced more charges to activate PMS to boost the yield of reactive oxide species (ROS) but also provided an ideal platform for the rapid reaction between CBZ and ROS during MF process. This investigation develops a new MF technique to conjugate piezo-activation of PMS-AOPs for the efficient removal of emerging pollutants for the potable reuse of wastewater.

Effect-based evaluation of water quality in a system of indirect reuse of wastewater for drinking water production

Indirect potable reuse of wastewater is a practice that is gaining attention, aiming to increase freshwater supplies to meet water scarcity. However, reusing effluent wastewater for drinking water production comes with a paired risk of adverse health effects, due to the potential presence of pathogenic microorganisms and hazardous micropollutants. Disinfection is an established method to reduce microbial hazards in drinking water, but it has been associated with formation of disinfection by-products (DBPs). In this study, we performed an effect-based assessment of chemical hazards in a system wherein a full-scale trial of disinfection by chlorination, of the treated wastewater was performed prior discharge to the reciepient river. The presence of bioactive pollutants was assessed along the entire treatment system, starting from incoming wastewater to finished drinking water at seven sites in and around the Llobregat River in Barcelona, Spain. Samples were collected in two campaigns, with and without applied chlorination treatment (13 mg Cl2/L) to the effluent wastewater. The water samples were analysed for cell viability, oxidative stress response (Nrf2 activity), estrogenicity, androgenicity, aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) activity and activation of NFĸB (nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells) signaling using stably transfected mammalian cell lines. Nrf2 activity, estrogen receptor activation and AhR activation was detected in all investigated samples. Overall, removal efficiencies were high in both wastewater treatment and drinking water treatment samples for most of the studied endpoints. No increase in oxidative stress (Nrf2 activity) could be attributed to the additional chlorination treatment of the effluent wastewater. However, we found an increase in AhR activity and a reduction of ER agonistic activity after chlorination treatment of effluent wastewater. The bioactivity detected in finished drinking water was considerably lower compared to what was found in effluent wastewater. We could thus conclude that indirect reuse of treated wastewater for drinking water production can be possible without compromising drinking water quality. This study contributed important knowledge in efforts to increase the reuse of treated wastewater as a source for drinking water production.

Simulating the impact of ozonation on biodegradation characteristics of industrial wastewater concentrated with membrane filtration

The biodegradation of raw wastewater for an organized industrial zone has been studied by means of dedicated respirometric and analytical experiments. The experimental results indicated that the investigated industrial wastewater contains mainly the soluble (slowly) hydrolysable fraction of chemical oxygen demand (COD) (58 %) while readily biodegradable and soluble inert fractions were in the order of 19 % and 3 %, respectively. Full-scale dynamic modeling results successfully confirmed the validity of estimated COD fraction and biodegradation kinetics. End of pipe wastewater reuse potential studied with a pilot plant revealed that almost 100 % soluble inert organics could be concentrated in reverse osmosis (RO) reject. Expectedly, the concentration was far above the COD discharge limit of 200 mg/L. Subsequently, the application of specific ozone dose around 7 kg O3/(kg COD·hour) on RO concentrates was not sufficient to secure the discharge limit by itself. However, the ozone oxidation converted 85 % of inert COD into the (soluble) slowly biodegradable organic matter. The modeling studies also showed that biodegradable organic matter generated by ozonation has much lower degradation kinetics compared to mainstream sequencing batch reactor system.

The Potential of Wastewater Reuse and the Role of Economic Valuation in the Pursuit of Sustainability: The Case of the Canal de Isabel II

Wastewater reuse is an activity that reduces pollution from discharges while increasing the available water resources. However, the high financial costs of this activity affect the viability of projects, either because of low water productivity or because of the presence of a cheaper alternative, such as natural water sources. The existence of environmental or social benefits makes reuse a positive option for society for its environmental and social benefits. This leaves the public sector to decide whether the benefit obtained justifies its participation in the development of reuse programs, for which it is necessary to use a tool such as cost-benefit analysis, which combines diverse costs and benefits. This article studies the potential for water reuse in Spain and the importance of informed decision-making, based on information regarding water stress, wastewater reuse, and the case study of the Canal de Isabel II (Madrid). The results confirm the potential of wastewater reuse; agriculture has a water productivity below EUR 1 per cubic meter and industry and services need their own sources of water, but financial constraints prevent the greater use of reclaimed water in all economic sectors and public intervention is necessary to obtain the optimum scenario for society. The case study from Madrid that we have analyzed in this paper shows the importance of considering all factors, since the results of prioritizing the financial criterion would have been detrimental to society, in the form of EUR 200 million in environmental damage, while EUR 740 million of non-financial benefits would make wastewater reuse an advantageous alternative for society, thus justifying the public investment.

Metal-organic framework enables ultraselective polyamide membrane for desalination and water reuse.

While reverse osmosis (RO) is the leading technology to address the global challenge of water scarcity through desalination and potable reuse of wastewater, current RO membranes fall short in rejecting certain harmful constituents from seawater (e.g., boron) and wastewater [e.g., N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA)]. In this study, we develop an ultraselective polyamide (PA) membrane by enhancing interfacial polymerization with amphiphilic metal-organic framework (MOF) nanoflakes. These MOF nanoflakes horizontally align at the water/hexane interface to accelerate the transport of diamine monomers across the interface and retain gas bubbles and heat of the reaction in the interfacial reaction zone. These mechanisms synergistically lead to the formation of a crumpled and ultrathin PA nanofilm with an intrinsic thickness of ~5 nm and a high cross-linking degree of ~98%. The resulting PA membrane delivers exceptional desalination performance that is beyond the existing upper bound of permselectivity and exhibited very high rejection (>90%) of boron and NDMA unmatched by state-of-the-art RO membranes.

Normalizing novel sanitation practices in transitioning towards circular food and energy systems

ABSTRACT Wastewater from sanitation contains several scarce resources that can be reused for purposes of energy and food production. Sanitation infrastructures, however, are often overlooked in debates on circular food systems, while the role of sanitation could be pivotal in combatting resource depletion facing agriculture. Transitioning sanitation infrastructures to support circular systems also needs a thorough understanding of the sanitation practices involved, as resource-oriented sanitation systems require a de-routinization in how we make use of toilets and deal with wastewater. Instead, novel sanitation practices are needed for circular developments around sanitation to become successfully part of daily routines and ensure the reuse potential of wastewater. This research paper focuses on understanding how sanitation practices are shaped and embedded and its implications for the re-routinization of novel sanitation practices. A mixed-method research design has been adopted comparing sanitation practices and infrastructures in three distinct neighborhoods within the Amsterdam Metropolitan Region. First, a survey was conducted that enabled the typology of neighborhoods. Second, in-depth interviews in three neighborhoods were conducted to uncover the embeddedness of sanitation practices. Results highlight the importance of re-routinizing practice when linking sanitation to food systems and list five mechanisms that may help normalizing novel sanitation practices.

AWWA Water Science Author Spotlight

Having recently published an article in AWWA Water Science, Caroline E. Scruggs answered questions from the publication's editor-in-chief, Kenneth L. Mercer, about the research. Mapping Potable Reuse Survey Data Using Spatial Statistics to Inform Tailored Education and Outreach Maurice P. Cruz, Caroline E. Scruggs, and Lauren N. Distler Caroline and her son ski in Santa Fe, N.M. I went to Virginia Tech for a mechanical engineering degree, thinking I would work on innovations in wind and solar energy. However, I changed majors a few times and was ultimately drawn to civil engineering because of concerns about environmental degradation, and eventually I decided to pursue a master's degree in environmental engineering. From there it was a bit serendipitous—Professor Clifford Randall was looking for a research assistant for an interesting wastewater treatment project, which became my thesis project. I think my superpower is being organized. I was also raised with a strong work ethic, which has served me well. Perhaps most importantly, I'm fortunate to get to work on problems that I'm genuinely interested in; the great thing about academia is that I'm more or less free to pursue thought-provoking research questions that I enjoy digging into. The hills are lit with the gold of aspen in Angel Fire, N.M. My coauthors and I noticed that the water reuse literature did a good job of describing the reasons that residents in some communities have opposed potable water reuse projects, and some studies even included an investigation into the demographic characteristics of those who are opposed to (or accepting of) water reuse. While this information might be generally useful, it is not necessarily user friendly; it doesn't help water planners and utilities figure out how to tailor their programming to the segments of the population that need particular kinds of education, outreach, and trust-building to allow residents to make informed decisions about water resources and reuse. We were aiming to develop an approach that would enable targeted public engagement and input on future water resource planning. The Albuquerque International Balloon Fiesta started in 1972. It is scheduled each year for the first week in October. Broadly, I care deeply about passing down a healthy planet to future generations. More specifically, with my water research I hope to contribute toward allowing communities in arid areas, such as the one in which I live, to continue to thrive in the face of climate change. With my chemicals research, I want to minimize people's exposure to hazardous chemicals, and I hope to contribute toward common-sense chemical-related policies that better prioritize health and the environment. I see two challenges as research at this intersection progresses. First, people don't want to give up conveniences that they currently enjoy. Whether we're thinking about moving away from flush toilets to alternatives that save water, or removing chemicals from consumer products that are found to be hazardous, there will be resistance to change. Second, as we move toward direct potable reuse of wastewater in more communities, we will need to consider whether and how current drinking water standards should be modified to account for potentially hazardous chemicals and/or if their upstream uses should be reduced or restricted through chemical policy changes. I moved a lot growing up, so I don't really have deep roots in one place. Perhaps a benefit was getting exposure to so many different parts of the United States, each with its own unique natural environment, water challenges, pollution issues, and other inspiration for a budding environmentalist. I spend as much time with my kids as possible, and in New Mexico we're lucky to have amazing outdoor activities at our doorstep—we take advantage of the skiing, walking in the bosque (river forest), and everything in between. I also enjoy painting and music, and recently started drum lessons with my older son. To learn more about Caroline's research, read the article, available online at https://doi.org/10.1002/aws2.1197. This article is part of the Topical Collection on Potable Reuse. Visit https://news.awwa.org/reuse-collection to learn more about this collection.

RECLAMO: Unlocking the potential of wastewater reuse for agricultural irrigation in Spain

Increasing water scarcity is encouraging the use of unconventional water resources. In recent years, the European Union has launched numerous initiatives to promote and facilitate water reuse for agricultural irrigation. Today, the use of reclaimed water for agriculture has become an alternative, reliable and safe source of water supply and an indispensable water planning tool, especially in the area of southern Europe. However, water reuse for irrigation is currently far below its potential. Numerous barriers prevent its development and call for a detailed analysis of the different aspects affecting reclaimed water reuse, through an integrated and multidisciplinary approach. A multidisciplinary research team from Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, consisting of agronomists, hydrologists, chemists and agricultural economists, will work on the RECLAMO Project (https://blogs.upm.es/reclamo/), with the aim of providing solutions and recommendations aimed at promoting the full development and use of reclaimed water for irrigation in areas of Spain with marked water stress. For this purpose, project activities will be developed in two selected case studies (the Segura Basin, leader in water reuse in Spain and the Guadiana Basin, with success stories, but low levels of water reuse) and organised according to five axes: 1) development of a comprehensive knowledge-base covering the regulatory, technical, socio-economic and environmental aspects of reclaimed water reuse in agriculture; 2) participatory development of future scenarios exploring possible strategies, barriers and opportunities, in relation to the expansion of the use of reclaimed water for irrigation; 3) impact analysis of the strategies identified at different scales (crop, farm, (sub-)basin), through the development of an integrated modelling platform (hydrologic-agronomic-economic models); 4) Development of a roadmap and policy recommendations to achieve the full development and use of reclaimed water reuse for irrigation; 5) Dissemination of knowledge and promotion of science-policy-society dialogue. To this end, RECLAMO will collaborate closely with experts and stakeholder groups that will play a key role in the project in co-creating the scenarios and modelling tools and validating the results. The project will also seek for synergies and complementarities with other similar projects and explore new ways of collaborating with companies and research groups that allow research to continue and expand beyond the spatial and temporal limits of the project. RECLAMO’s results will promote an integrated approach to the sustainable management of water resources in water-stressed areas, including reclaimed water management. The integrated modelling platform developed in the project will allow policy-makers and water users to benefit from an improved understanding of the interactions between the social, economic and environmental aspects of water systems, in the context of climate and socio-economic change that will lead to better informed decision-making to address future water challenges. In addition, RECLAMO is expected to contribute to raising awareness about the use of reclaimed water reuse in agriculture as a safe and sustainable practice and to improve its social acceptance by producing science-based knowledge that provide evidence on the benefits derived from its use.

Textile wastewater reusability in knitted fabric washing process using UF membrane technology

The textile industry is a massive consumer and polluter of our fresh water. This paper focuses on wastewater produced by the textile industry with the aim of treating and reusing it for certain wet processes in the textile industry, i.e., washing dyed knitted cotton fabric. Accordingly, UF membranes (GH, GK, PT, PU, PW, MW) with different molecular weight cut-offs (MWCO) ranging from 2 to 50 kDa were used. Wastewater treatment studies were performed on a lab scale and all samples were subjected to the following tests: chemical oxygen demand (COD), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5), total bound nitrogen (TNb), turbidity, conductivity, color, and concentration of SO42−, Na+, Ca2+, K+. The permeate flux was also monitored and investigated in the process due to possible fouling and its effect on membrane performances. Based on the conducted tests, results for the membrane with the lowest MWCO (GH), were 79.8% COD, 56.0% BOD5, 82.4% TOC, 81.0% TNb, > 99.3% turbidity, 79.2% conductivity, 93.1% SO42−, 79.3% Na+, 98.6%, Ca2+, and 53.3% K+ removal which is the highest value of all investigated membranes. For this reason, the same permeate was tested for its suitable use in the process of washing dyed knitted cotton fabric. The results showed a high reuse potential of textile wastewater due to the same quality of dyed knitted cotton fabric washed with the UF permeate and with water used in the factory. The innovative aspect of this research is as follows: 1) direct use of UF membranes (without pre- and post-treatments) for the purpose of reusing treated wastewater in the textile industry in processes as yet not investigated and 2) identifying reuse criteria for washing dyed knitted cotton fabric.

A multiple input type optimization model integrating reuse and disposal options for a wastewater treatment facility

In the last few years, rapid industrial development coupled with globalization have brought about significant environmental impacts from both the industrial and urban settlements. Inadequate treatment and improper disposal of wastewater is a growing problem, causing health hazards and endangering nearby marine life. As such, it is more important to implement a sustainable strategy to reduce the harmful environmental impact of untreated wastewater. Optimizing wastewater treatment operations while tapping into the reuse potential of wastewater can improve the economic viability of a treatment plant. This study presents a mathematical model formulated to optimize the treatment process of wastewater. The model takes into account different input types in terms of quantity and quality, and various output or disposal options. Also, this study introduces the use of different input treatment options – mixed, parallel, and series – to better optimize according to the stakeholder’s objectives. This integrated view of the system from input to output strengthens the model’s capability to meet stakeholder requirements and optimize operations.

Determination of 18 bisphenols in aqueous and biomass phase of high rate algal ponds: Development, validation and application

High rate algal ponds (HRAP) are an alternative to conventional wastewater treatment with the potential for wastewater and biomass reuse. In this study, we report the development and validation of methods for analysing 18 bisphenols (BPs) in the aqueous and biomass phase of HRAP. For aqueous phase samples, obtained LLOQ ranged from 10 to 30 ng/L, and recoveries from 78% to 106%. The relative expanded uncertainty was highest at the lowest spiking level (100 ng/L) and ranged from 27% to 66% (BPA), while for the biomass, the LLOQ ranged from 25 to 75 ng/g dw, recoveries from 84% to 103%. The uncertainty ranged from 16% to 37% (BPA). On average, the influent contained 329, 144, and 21 ng/L of BPA, BPS and 4,4′-BPF, and the effluent 69 ng/L, 94 ng/L and <LLOQ, respectively. Only BPA was quantified in the algal biomass. The average removal of BPA was 80%, whereas the removal efficiency of BPS was 32%. To our knowledge, this is the first study analysing a wide range of BPs in both aqueous and biomass phase of HRAP treating real wastewater.

Comparative life cycle assessment of three alternative techniques for increasing potable water supply in cities in the Global South

Abstract Clean water is becoming an increasingly scarce resource, and its availability is already compromised in many cities. Several techniques for increasing urban water availability are under consideration, but how their life cycle environmental impacts compare amongst one other remain largely unknown. For cities in developing countries, which are more susceptive to water shortages, this is particularly true. Furthermore, to directly compare these technologies, they must be evaluated using the same methodological framework. This paper compares, for the first time, the life cycle environmental impacts of the following three techniques: i) seawater desalination by reverse osmosis (SWRO); ii) indirect potable wastewater reuse (IPR) through an upflow anaerobic sludge blanket digestion reactor, oxidation ditch, ozonation, and managed aquifer recharge; and iii) rainwater harvesting (RWH) to substitute drinking water from the local distribution network. These techniques were evaluated in the Brazilian southern city of Florianopolis. Life cycle assessment (LCA) was used to calculate 15 environmental impact categories with the ReCiPe methodology. Variations in electricity consumption according to technical developments, effluent quality, and pumping efficiency were taken into consideration with parametric analysis. Furthermore, a sensitivity analysis was carried out regarding the direct emissions of methane and nitrous oxide during IPR, and the electricity mix. SWRO indicates the highest results for 12 out of the 15 impact categories, and IPR indicates the lowest values in nine categories. Electricity consumption is the main contributor to most impact categories during SWRO and IPR. Out of six categories (including climate change and human toxicity), RWH is the preferable option whilst comparatively also presenting the worst results for water depletion and marine eutrophication, with glass fibre produced for storage tanks being the main contributor. In the climate change potential category, for instance, SWRO, IPR and RWH have mean results of 751, 998, and 591 kg CO2 eq./1000 m3, respectively. However, the sensitivity analysis showed that if direct emissions of CH4 and N2O in IPR are low, then the IPR technique will have better results than the SWRO method, resulting in 710 kg CO2 eq./1000 m3. Additionally, the country electricity mix was found to be highly influential in the environmental impacts, especially for SWRO and IPR. The results obtained from this research will inform stakeholders, particularly those in developing countries, about possibilities of adopting new techniques for increasing water supplies, without comprising the environmental sustainability of these systems.

Reuse potential of wastewater and sludge in Fujian Province based on a dynamic optimization model and sustainable urban development

Reuse potential of wastewater and sludge in Fujian Province based on a dynamic optimization model and sustainable urban development