Postpartum Vitamin Research Articles

Early exclusive breastfeeding reduces the risk of postnatal HIV-1 transmission and increases HIV-free survival

The promotion of exclusive breastfeeding (EBF) to reduce the postnatal transmission (PNT) of HIV is based on limited data. In the context of a trial of postpartum vitamin A supplementation, we provided education and counseling about infant feeding and HIV, prospectively collected information on infant feeding practices, and measured associated infant infections and deaths. A total of 14 110 mother-newborn pairs were enrolled, randomly assigned to vitamin A treatment group after delivery, and followed for 2 years. At baseline, 6 weeks and 3 months, mothers were asked whether they were still breastfeeding, and whether any of 22 liquids or foods had been given to the infant. Breastfed infants were classified as exclusive, predominant, or mixed breastfed. A total of 4495 mothers tested HIV positive at baseline; 2060 of their babies were alive, polymerase chain reaction negative at 6 weeks, and provided complete feeding information. All infants initiated breastfeeding. Overall PNT (defined by a positive HIV test after the 6-week negative test) was 12.1%, 68.2% of which occurred after 6 months. Compared with EBF, early mixed breastfeeding was associated with a 4.03 (95% CI 0.98, 16.61), 3.79 (95% CI 1.40-10.29), and 2.60 (95% CI 1.21-5.55) greater risk of PNT at 6, 12, and 18 months, respectively. Predominant breastfeeding was associated with a 2.63 (95% CI 0.59-11.67), 2.69 (95% CI 0.95-7.63) and 1.61 (95% CI 0.72-3.64) trend towards greater PNT risk at 6, 12, and 18 months, compared with EBF. EBF may substantially reduce breastfeeding-associated HIV transmission.

Declining Levels of Erythrocyte Folate during the Postpartum Period among Hispanic Women Living on the Texas-Mexico Border

Hispanic women have higher parity and shorter interbirth intervals than women of other ethnic groups. Thus, they are more likely to become pregnant relatively soon after giving birth, which may place these women at risk of low or deficient levels of specific nutrients. Folic acid is of particular concern because recent studies suggest that maternal use of folic acid supplements may be associated with better reproductive outcomes. The purpose of this study was to assess folic acid levels in postpartum Hispanic women. Using a cross-sectional design, we measured erythrocyte folate values for 188 low-income Hispanic women 1-12 months postpartum who were receiving services at the Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) clinics in El Paso, Texas. An interview was administered to collect information on diet, vitamin use, and method of infant feeding. Mean erythrocyte folate levels decreased from >1300 ng/ml during the first 4 months postpartum to a low of 1017 ng/ml by 12 months postpartum, for an overall decrease of approximately 23% (p = 0.004). Use of postpartum vitamin supplements was significantly associated with higher folate levels. However, only 35% of mothers used vitamins beyond 1 month postpartum. Study results suggest that these mothers may be at risk of developing low or deficient levels of folic acid during the postpartum period. Educational campaigns targeting these women as well as other groups of postpartum women should encourage them to comply with the U.S. Public Health Service recommendation that women of childbearing age consume 0.4 mg of folic acid daily.

Evaluation of serum retinol, the modified-relative-dose-response ratio, and breast-milk vitamin A as indicators of response to postpartum maternal vitamin A supplementation

Conflicting results have been reported regarding the relative performance of serum retinol, the modified-relative-dose-response (MRDR) ratio, and breast-milk vitamin A concentrations in detecting changes in maternal vitamin A status. We used receiver operating characteristic analyses and standardized differences to compare the ability of these indicators to detect a response to postpartum vitamin A supplementation in lactating Bangladeshi women. At 2 wk postpartum, women were randomly assigned to receive either a single dose of vitamin A [200000 IU (60000 retinol equivalents); n = 74] or placebo (n = 73). Data from maternal serum and breast milk collected 3 mo postpartum and from infant serum collected 6 mo postpartum were used to examine the ability of serum retinol, the MRDR ratio, and breast-milk vitamin A to discriminate between individuals in the supplemented and unsupplemented groups. Breast milk was collected by expressing the entire contents of one breast that had not been used to feed an infant for > or =2 h (full samples) or without controlling the time since the last breast-feeding episode (casual samples). Casual breast-milk samples performed better than full breast-milk samples in detecting a response to maternal supplementation. The MRDR ratio performed better than serum retinol in both the women and their infants. Overall, the most responsive indicator was the measurement of breast-milk vitamin A per gram of fat in casual breast-milk samples. Breast-milk vitamin A and the MRDR ratio are responsive indicators of vitamin A status, especially in women with mild vitamin A deficiency.

Breast milk immune factors in Bangladeshi women supplemented postpartum with retinol or β-carotene

Vitamin A supplementation of mothers postpartum may improve infant health, not only by increasing vitamin A delivery to the infant through breast milk but also by increasing delivery of milk immune factors. Our hypothesis was that postpartum supplementation with vitamin A increases milk concentrations of certain soluble immune factors. In a double-blind trial conducted in Matlab, Bangladesh, women at 1-3 wk postpartum were randomly assigned to receive until 9 mo postpartum 1) a single dose of 60 mg retinol as retinyl palmitate followed by daily placebos (n = 69), 2) daily doses of 7.6 mg beta-carotene (n = 72), or 3) daily placebos (n = 71). Milk samples collected at baseline and 3 mo postpartum were analyzed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for secretory immunoglobulin A, lactoferrin, lysozyme, and interleukin 8; by HPLC for total retinol; and by atomic absorption spectroscopy for sodium and potassium. After mammary epithelial permeability (defined as an elevated Na:K) and baseline immune factor concentrations were controlled for, there were no significant treatment effects on immune factors at 3 mo. Increased mammary permeability was common (25% of women at baseline and 12% at 3 mo) and was associated with higher concentrations of milk immune factors. Low body vitamin A stores at baseline, as assessed by the modified-relative-dose-response test, were associated with a higher Na:K, but neither retinol nor beta-carotene supplementation affected the prevalence of increased mammary permeability. Postpartum vitamin A supplementation does not increase milk concentrations of immune factors. The causes of increased mammary epithelial permeability in this population require further study.

Nutrition of Honduran mothers/caretakers.

In 1996, the Honduran Ministry of Health conducted a national micronutrient survey of children 12-71 months old, which also included an assessment of the nutrition status of their mothers/caretakers. The 1,126 mothers/caretakers who participated in the survey tended to be short and plump. About 15% of them were at obstetric risk by virtue of their short stature and/or low body weight. About 9% had chronic energy deficiency (CED), but 27% were at least 20% overweight. CED was associated with socioeconomic indicators of poverty. Risk factors for being at least 20% overweight included being over 30 years old, not breast-feeding, having attended no higher than grade 4, 5, or 6 of primary school, coming from a wealthier household, and living in San Pedro Sula or medium-sized cities. Among the women surveyed, 26% of nonpregnant and 32% of pregnant mothers/caretakers were anemic. The likely principal cause of anemia was the low intake of bioavailable iron from food and, in some cases, excessive iron loss associated with intestinal parasites, especially hookworm. Only 50% of the mothers/caretakers participating in this study had received iron during their last pregnancy, and just 13% had received postpartum vitamin A. The results highlight the need to develop and implement an effective program to control iron deficiency anemia in women of reproductive age, including by fortifying such widely consumed foods as processed wheat and maize flour and by routinely administering iron supplements to high-risk groups. Postpartum vitamin A supplementation should be encouraged to protect both the mother and newborn infant against vitamin A deficiency.

Maternal Vitamin A or β-Carotene Supplementation in Lactating Bangladeshi Women Benefits Mothers and Infants but Does Not Prevent Subclinical Deficiency

The effects of maternal postpartum vitamin A or β-carotene supplementation on maternal and infant serum retinol concentrations, modified relative dose-response (MRDR) ratios and breast milk vitamin A concentrations were assessed during a community-based trial in Matlab, Bangladesh. At 1–3 wk postpartum, women were randomly assigned to receive either (1) a single dose of 200,000 international units [60,000 retinol equivalents (RE)] vitamin A followed by daily placebos (n = 74), (2) daily doses of β-carotene [7.8 mg (1300 RE)] (n = 73) or (3) daily placebos (n = 73) until 9 mo postpartum. Compared to placebos, vitamin A supplementation resulted in lower maternal MRDR ratios (i.e., increased liver stores) and higher milk vitamin A concentrations at 3 mo, but these improvements were not sustained. The β-carotene supplementation acted more slowly, resulting in milk vitamin A concentrations higher than the placebo group only at 9 mo. Irrespective of treatment group, over 50% of women produced milk with low vitamin A concentrations (≤1.05 μmol/L or ≤0.28 μmol/g fat) throughout the study. Overall, mean maternal serum retinol concentrations were not affected by supplementation. Compared to the placebo group, the mean MRDR ratio of 6-mo-old infants was higher in the vitamin A group. Infants (33%) had serum retinol concentrations <0.70 μmol/L and 88% had MRDR ratios ≥0.06. We conclude that while both interventions were beneficial, neither was sufficient to correct the underlying subclinical vitamin A deficiency in these women nor to bring their infants into adequate vitamin A status.

Randomised trial to assess benefits and safety of vitamin A supplementation linked to immunisation in early infancy

<h2>Summary</h2><h3>Background</h3> The benefits and safety of vitamin A supplementation linked to immunisation in infancy need to be assessed before it can be widely recommended. We assessed the safety and benefits of maternal postpartum and infant vitamin A supplementation administered with each of the three diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis (DPT) and poliomyelitis immunisations and with a fourth dose with measles immunisation. <h3>Methods</h3> From January, 1995, we enrolled 9424 mother-infant pairs from Ghana, India, and Peru in this randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. 4716 mothers of infants in the vitamin A group received 200 000 IU vitamin A, and their infants were given 25 000 IU vitamin A with each of the first three doses of DPT/poliomyelitis immunisation at 6, 10, and 14 weeks. In the control group, 4708 mothers and their infants received placebo at the same times. At 9 months, with measles immunisation, infants in the vitamin A group were given a further dose of 25 000 IU and those in the control group received 100 000 IU vitamin A. Infants were followed up to age 12 months. The primary outcome measures were vitamin A status, signs of acute toxic effects, anthropometric indicators, and severe morbidity. Analysis was by intention to treat. <h3>Findings</h3> 3933 (93%) of the eligible 4212 infants on vitamin A and 3938 (93%) of the eligible 4227 controls received all four study doses. At the 6-month follow-up, there was a small decrease in vitamin A deficiency in the vitamin A group compared with controls (serum retinol ⩽0·70 μmol/L 101 [29·9%] <i>vs</i> 122 [37·1%; 95% Cl of the difference−14·3% to −0·2%]). This effect was no longer apparent at 9 and 12 months. There were no significant between-group differences in mortality throughout the study. The rate ratio to compare all deaths up to age 9 months in the two groups was 0·96 (95% Cl 0·73 to 1·27). Fewer than 1% of the infants had bulging fontanelle. The intervention had no effect on anthropometric status, or on overall or severe morbidity. <h3>Interpretation</h3> The trial confirmed the safety of the intervention, but shows no sustained benefits in terms of vitamin A status beyond age 6 months or infant morbidity.

Dietary vitamin E and selenium affect mastitis and milk quality.

Vitamin E and selenium (SE) are essential nutrients that are integral components of the antioxidant defense of tissues and cells. Soils in many of the important dairy regions of the world are Se-deficient, and feedstuffs grown on these soils will not provide adequate dietary Se. Cattle consuming stored forages are likely to be low in vitamin E unless supplemented, and vitamin E deficiencies are frequently observed in peripartum dairy cows. Many new intramammary infections (IMI) occur in the 2 wk before and after calving. Deficiencies of either vitamin E or Se have been associated with increased incidence and severity of IMI, increased clinical mastitis cases, and higher somatic cell counts (SCC) in individual cows and bulk tank milk. Somatic cell counts are a primary indicator of mastitis and milk quality in dairy herds. The polymorphonuclear neutrophil (PMN) is a major defensive mechanism against infection in the bovine mammary gland. A know consequence of vitamin E and Se deficiency is impaired PMN activity and postpartum vitamin E deficiencies are frequently observed in dairy cows. Dietary supplementation of cows with Se and vitamin E results in a more rapid PMN influx into milk following intramammary bacterial challenge and increased intracellular kill of ingested bacteria by PMN. Subcutaneous injections of vitamin E approximately 10 and 5 d before calving successfully elevated PMN alpha-tocopherol concentrations during the periparturient period and negated the suppressed intracellular kill of bacteria by PMN that commonly is observed around calving.